SUGGESTIONS 


FOR 

Teaching  Household  Arts 

AND 

Agriculture 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE 

DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 


M.  L.  BRITTAIN, 

State  Superintendent  of  Schools 


ATLANTA,  GA. 

Chas.  P.  Byrd,  State  Printer 
1913 


PREFACE. 

For  sometime,  Miss  C.  S.  Parrish,  Mr.  M.  L.  Duggan,  Mr.  F.  E. 
Land,  and  Mr.  Geo.  D.  Godard,  our  State  School  Supervisors,  have 
felt  the  necessity  for  presenting  their  teaching  on  industrial  subjects 
in  a  more  definite  and  permanent  form.  The  need  for  this  exists  rather 
more  keenly  than  in  other  departments  of  the  educational  field  where 
the  form  of  instruction  has  been  agreed  upon  and  fixed  through  custom 
and  practice  for  years.  This  pamphlet  is  the  result  of  their  conference 
and  deliberation  at  the  Department  of  Education,  and  I  cordially 
endorse  its  purpose,  and  believe  it  will  be  of  decided  benefit  to  the 
schools  of  the  State. 

M.  L.  BRITTAIN, 

State  Superintendent  of  Schools. 


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GARDENING  FOR  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS. 

An  intimate  knowledge  of  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  teaching 
gardening  effectively  in  country  schools  has  led  to  a  plan  which  will 
obviate  most  of  these  difficulties,  and  be  within  the  power  of  any 
country  teacher. 

It  is  fully  understood  that  if  gardening  in  country  schools  is  to 
succeed,  it  must,  under  present  conditions,  begin  and  end  with  the 
school  term,  take  only  a  little  of  the  time  of  each  child,  be  done  on  a 
small  surface,  meet  a  practical  need,  and  commend  itself  to  the  parents 
of  the  children. 

Hot-bed  and  cold  frame  gardening  may  be  begun  .in  Georgia  at 
any  time  from  October  to  January,  and  the  plants  may  be  transferred 
to  the  open  ground  on  dates  ranging  from  January  15  to  April  15. 
These  dates  include  the  term  of  the  great  majority  of  the  country 
schools.  Neither  the  hot-bed  nor  the  cold  frame  will  occupy  much 
space,  a  half  hour  a  week  from  each  child  will  keep  them  in  order,  they 
will  give  fresh  vegetables  a  month  earlier  than  would  otherwise  be  pos¬ 
sible,  and  will  supply  home  gardens  with  plants  which  are  now  usually 
ordered  from  a  distance  or  grown  very  late. 

Instructions  For  The  Hot  Bed. 

Select  a  place  sunny  in  winter,  sheltered  from  the  cold  winds,  and 
so  well  drained  that  water  will  not  rise  in  a  shallow  pit.  The  south 
side  of  the  school  house  is  frequently  suitable,  the  higher  wall  of  tha 
wooden  frame  being  placed  about  four  feet  from  the  school  house.  Dig 
a  pit  sixty-eight  inches  wide,  twelve  feet  long  and  two  feet  deep.  In  the 
bottom  of  the  pit,  put  coarse  litter  to  the  depth  of  six  inches.  On  this 
put  twelve  inches  of  fresh  horse  manure,  mixed  with  humus.  If  the 
manure  has  very  little  humus  in  it,  put  alternate  layers  of  manure  and 
leaves,  hay,  or  chopped  corn  stalks.  Trample  or  beat  this  manure  down 
until  it  is  w^ell  packed.  It  will  be  well  to  pack  litter  between  the 
manure  and  the  sides  of  the  pit,  in  order  to  protect  the  manure  from 
the  cold  ground.  On  the  manure,  put  four  inches  of  woods  earth  or  rich 
garden  soil,  liberally  mixed  with  well  rotted  manure — preferably  cow 
manure.  Then  put  the  frame  and  cover  described  below  in  place,  and 
leave  the  bed  to  heat  up.  The  heat  is  caused  by  the  fermentation  of  the 
manure.  The  seeds  should  not  be  planted  until  four  or  five  days  later. 

Wooden  Frame  for  Hot  Bed  or  Cold  Frame. 

Make  a  rectangular  frame  twelve  feet  four  inches  long  and  six  feet 
wide  on  the  outside.  Let  it  be  twelve  inches  high  at  the  back,  and  six 
inches  high  in  front.  Let  the  sides  slope  so  as  to  fit  this  back  and 


front.  Make  three  grooves,  three  inches  wide,  one  inch  deep,  two  feet 
and  ten  inches  apart,  on  both  front  and  back.  Be  careful  to  have  these 
grooves  on  front  and  back  exactly  opposite  each  other.  In  the  grooves 
nail  strips,  six  feet  long  three  inches  wide  and  one  inch  thick.  Along 
the  middle  of  each  three  inch  strip  nail  a  strip  six  feet  long,  one  inch 
wide  and  one  inch  thick.  The  frame  is  illustrated  below. 


Glass  sash  six  feet  long,  and  three  feet  wide,  may  be  used  to  cover 
the  frames.  Sash  of  this  sort  may  be  bought  for  two  dollars  and 
twenty-five  cents  apiece,  from  any  lumber  manufacturing  company, 


Hotbed,  Showing  Frame  and  Sash. 


but  this  would  make  the  beds  expensive,  and  glass  is  not  necessary  to 
success.  A  thick,  stout  cotton  cloth  which  can  be  bought  for  fifteen  cents 
a  yard  may  be  substituted.  If  this  is  used,  no  sash  will  be  necessary. 
The  inch  strips  will  also  be  unnecessary.  The  three  inch  strips  Avill 
still  be  needed  to  hold  up  the  cloth. 

Directions  for  Cloth  Cover. 

Cut  the  cloth  into  lengths  of  seven  feet,  sew  these  together  on  the 
selvage  edges  until  there  is  a  piece  fourteen  feet  Avide.  Turn  one  of 
the  raw  edges  under,  and  tack  it  to  the  top  of  the  frame,  letting  one 
foot  hang  over  at  each  end.  Turn  under  the  other  raw  edge,  and  nail  it 
to  a  stout  pole  twelve  feet  long.  The  seven  feet  of  cloth  will  alloAv  the 
pole  to  hang  over  the  front  of  the  cold  frame,  Aveight  the  cloth,  and 
hold  it  in  place.  The  lumber  for  the  frame  will  be  cheaper  if  it  is 
bought  undressed.  In  this  case,  it  should  be  covered  with  a  creosote  stain 
to  make  it  last  longer.  Very  frequently,  the  children  can  pick  up 
enough  scrap  lumber  about  their  homes  to  make  the  frame,  and  the  best 
parts  of  two  or  three  old  Avagon  sheets  will  make  the  cloth  cover. 


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Cold  Frame. 

This  is  nothing  more  than  a  frame  built  and  protected  just  as  a  hot¬ 
bed  frame  is,  but  without  the  fermenting  manure.  It  is  placed  on  well 
broken  up  ground,  in  a  sunny  place,  six  inches  of  woods  earth  or  garden 
soil  mixed  with  well  rotted  manure  are  put  in  it,  and  it  is  ready  for 
use. 

Remarks  and  Cautions. 

The  slope  of  either  hot  bed  or  cold  frame  should  be  toward  the 
south,  so  as  to  give  the  plants  the  winter  sunshine. 

The  dimensions  given  for  the  frames  are  merely  suggestive.  A 
frame  twelve  feet  long  will  have  four  compartments  three  feet  wide. 
If  it  seems  best,  there  may  be  four  separate  frames,  each  three  by  six. 
Other  arrangements  will  readily  suggest  themselves.  In  most  cases,  it 
will  be  better  to  have  both  a  hot  bed  and  a  cold  frame.  Sometimes, 
one  small  hot  bed,  and  a  cold  frame  for  each  grade  is  advisable. 

Teachers  are  urged  to  have  the  children  make  the  wooden  frames 
and  the  cloth  covers,  thus  giving  them  valuable  manual  training,  and 
to  have  them  calculate  the  quantity  and  cost  of  the  lumber  and  cloth, 
thus  giving  them  practical  work  in  arithmetic. 

Use  of  the  Frames. 

The  seeds  should  be  sown  first  in  the  hot  bed.  As  soon  as  they  have 
their  true  leaves,  they  should  be  drawn  gently  out  or  removed  with  a 
flat  stick.  The  soil  should  be  well  watered  the  day  before  this  is  done 
so  that  the  work  will  be  easy.  With  the  flat  stick  or  with  the  fingers, 
lift  out  a  clump  of  soil  with  a  number  of  plants  in  it,  and  then  gently 
separate  the  little  plants.  Set  the  plants  deeper  than  they  were  in  the 
hot  bed  but  not  too  deep.  The  figure  below  shows  the  proper  size  of 
the  little  plant  and  the  depth  at  which  it  should  be  planted.  When 


the  “pricking  off”  or  transplanting  is  done  the  plant  should  be  protected 
from  the  sun  for  a  day  or  two.  When  the  plants  are  two  or  three 
inches  high  they  should  again  be  transplanted.  This  transplanting  often 
repeated  will  make  them  “stocky”  and  hardy.  Then  when  the  spring 
opens,  and  they  are  put  into  the  open  ground  they  will  grow  faster  and 
make  finer  vegetables.  As  soon  as  they  develop  a  good  leafage,  they 
should  be  “sheared”  at  each  transplanting.  This  shearing  is  a  good 
thing  to  remember  in  connection  with  all  transplanting.  It  takes  some 
little  time  for  the  newly  set  roots  to  adjust  themselves  and  get  water 
from  the  soil.  If  there  is  much  leaf  surface,  the  evaporation  will  send 
away  far  more  water  than  the  plant  gets  from  the  roots  and  it  will  die. 
When  the  leaves  are  cut  away,  evaporation  is  checked  until  the  roots 
can  begin  to  do  their  work.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  cut 
out  the  bud  from  which  the  plant  grows.  The  cut  below  shows  where 
the  shearing  should  be  done  and  also  shows  the  advantage  of  trans¬ 
planting.  Plants  “a”  and  “b”  are  the  same  age  but  “a”  was  left  in 
the  seed  bed  while  “b”  was  transplanted. 


When  the  sun  is  shining,  and  the  weather  is  not  too  cold,  the  glass 
or  cloth  should  be  removed,  and  the  plants  allowed  to  get  sun  and  air. 
The  cover  should  always  be  put  on  before  sunset  and  left  on  until  the 
sun  is  high  in  the  sky  in  the  morning.  On  cold  cloudy  days,  the 
frames  should  be  left  covered.  At  a  school,  they  should  be  carefully 
closed  on  Friday  afternoon  and  left  so  until  Monday  morning.  On  very 
cold  nights,  old  rugs  or  sacks  or  anything  warm,  which  is  handy,  should 


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be  thrown  over  the  frames  for  extra  protection.  The  earth  in  the 
frames  should  be  kept  moist  by  sprinkling  it  well  with  tepid  water  every 
two  or  three  days.  It  should  never  be  allowed  to  get  dry,  and  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  wetting  goes  to  the  lowest  roots  of  the  plant. 
When  the  weather  is  chilly  or  cold,  the  water  used  may  be  quite  warm. 
When  there  is  a  warm  gentle  rain,  open  the  frames,  and  let  the  plants 
enjoy  it,  but  shield  them  from  cold  or  beating  rains. 


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CALENDAR. 

November. 

Sow  lettuce,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  beets,  tomatoes,  egg  plants,  sweet 
peppers,  onions  and  pansies  in  the  hot  bed.  Sow  spring  radishes  and 
parsley  in  the  cold  frames  where  they  will  not  be  disturbed.  Prick  off 
all  plants  except  the  radishes  and  parsley  as  soon  as  they  have  their 
true  leaves.  The  tomatoes,  pepper  and  egg  plants  would  better  be 
planted  again  in  the  hot  bed,  but  the  others  can  go  to  the  cold  frames. 

December. 

Transplant  to  the  cold  frame  all  plants  that  are  ready  for  it.  Make 
fresh  sowings  of  lettuce,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  tomatoes,  and  beets  in  the 
hot  bed.  Put  the  cabbage  plants  in  a  more  exposed  part  of  the  cold 
frame  to  “harden  off.”  This  is  done  by  giving  more  air  and  less  water, 
and  by  leaving  them  uncovered  more  and  more,  until  finally  the  covers 
can  be  left  off  entirely. 

January. 

Transplant  from  December  sowings.  Transplant  the  “hardened  off” 
cabbage  plants  to  the  open  ground.  Take  some  tomato  plants  from  the 
hot  bed,  plant  them  near  the  higher  wall  of  the  cold  frame,  and  turn 
a  fruit  jar  over  each,  taking  care  that  the  glass  does  not  touch  the 
plant.  Let  as  many  children  do  this  as  will  bring  the  fruit  jars.  Make 
fresh  sowings  of  whatever  plants  the  children  want. 

February. 

Let  the  children  take  home  cabbage  and  beet  plants  and  put  them  in 
the  open  ground.  If  they  can  make  shelters  like  this  let  them  take 


Board  Used  for  Protection  of  Plants. 


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tomato  plants,  cautioning  them  to  turn  the  glass  jars  over  the  plants 
and  to  cover  the  whole  with  old  rugs  on  cold  nights.  The  board  should 
he  on  the  north  side  of  the  plants.  Have  the  children  fold  paper  boxes 
and  fill  them  with  rich  earth.  Plant  in  these  boxes  cucumbers,  canta¬ 
loupes  and  squash.  Place  the  boxes  in  a  sunny  part  of  the  cold  frame, 
and  keep  them  well  watered.  These  plants  cannot  be  transplanted,  but 
when  the  spring  opens,  the  paper  boxes  can  be  set  in  the  open  ground. 
The  paper  will  decay  and  fall  away,  leaving  the  plant  to  flourish  and 
fruit  much  earlier.  Make  a  last  sowing  of  tomatoes. 

March. 

As  soon  as  the  warm  weather  comes,  let  the  children  take  all  the 
plants  home  and  plant  their  gardens.  The  school  may  make  a  specialty 
of  growing  certain  plants,  and  selling  them  to  neighboring  farmers. 
Tomato  plants  will  pay  well.  Beets  are  not  hurt  by  frost  and  can  be 
put  out  in  February.  If  the  school  is  near  a  market  the  cultivation  of 
lettuce  can  be  made  very  profitable. 

Cultural  Directions. 

Seeds  should  be  covered  with  earth  to  about  four  times  their  thick¬ 
ness.  The  earth  should  always  be  “firmed”  over  and  around  the  seed.  It 
is  good  for  a  child  to  get  into  the  hot  bed  or  cold  frame  and  walk 
heavily  over  every  inch  of  it  after  the  seeds  are  planted.  This  will 
press  the  earth  close  to  the  seed  so  that  the  plant  food  will  be  easily 
available.  After  this  the  ground  should  be  lightly  raked  over  so  as  to 
give  it  a  “dust  mulch.”  After  the  plants  come  up,  the  soil  should  be 
kept  stirred,  but  all  cultivation  should  be  very  shallow. 

The  illustrations  on  the  preceding  pages  are  copied  by  permission 
from  bulletins  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 


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CHILDREN’S  HOME  GARDENS. 

Hot  beds  and  cold  frames  furnish,  perhaps,  the  best  form  of  vege¬ 
table  gardening  which  can .  be  carried  on  successfully  at  the  country 
school  under  present  conditions,  but  every  teacher  should  encourage 
home-gardening  among  the  children,  allowing  them  to  take  plants  from 
the  hot  beds  and  cold  frames  as  a  starting  point  for  these  gardens.  The 
teacher  should  discuss  the  methods  and  principles  of  outdoor  gardening 
in  the  school,  should  visit  the  home  gardens,  and  help  the  children  to 
preserve  and  market  the  crops.  The  lessons  given  at  the  school  can  be 
utilized  for  reading,  writing,  spelling,  language  and  arithmetic,  so  that 
time  will  be  saved  rather  than  lost.  If  the  work  is  well  done,  the 
parents  will  be  pleased  rather  than  offended. 

If  the  cabbage  plants  in  the  cold-frames  have  been  hardened  off 
properly,  they  can  be  planted  in  the  open  air,  even  in  December  and 
January.  They  will  grow  a  little  in  every  warm  spell  and  thaw  out 
safely  after  every  hard  freeze.  The  teacher  should  learn  the  details  of 
cabbage  culture,  teach  it  to  the  children,  and  encourage  emulation  among 
them  in  growing  fine  cabbage.  For  these  details,  see  Free  Farmers’ 
Bulletin  No.  433.  Lupton’s  “Cabbage  and  Cauliflower  for  Profit”  can 
be  bought  from  Peter  Henderson,  New  'York  City,  for  25  cents. 

Cauliflower  should  not  be  put  in  the  open  ground  until  all  danger 
from  frost  has  passed,  but  the  children  should  be  encouraged  to  grow 
some  in  their  home  gardens.  It  is  much  more  delicate  than  cabbage,  can 
be  cooked  in  a  number  of  ways,  and  will  help  to  give  variety  to  the 
home  diet. 

Each  child  should  be  persuaded  to  select  three  or  four  varieties  of 
plants  from  the  hot-bed  and  cold-frame,  but  it  would  probably  be  better 
to  emphasize  tomatoes,  since  this  is  the  usual  vegetable  for  the  girls’ 
canning  clubs. 

The  teacher  should  persuade  as  many  girls  as  possible  to  cultivate  a 
tenth-acre  garden,  and  should,  as  far  as  possible,  visit  the 
homes  for  the  purpose  of  helping  the  girls  to  locate  and  lay  off  their 
gardens.  When  this  is  done,  the  tomato  plants  grown  in  the  hot-beds  and 
cold-frames  should  be  used  for  the  earliest  plantings,  thus  enabling  the 
girls  to  begin  their  canning  a  month  earlier  than  would  otherwise  be 
possible. 

The  teacher  should  encourage  the  girls  to  make  later  sowings  in  the 
open  air,  so  as  to  have  ripening  tomatoes  in  the  garden  until  frost. 
When  the  coming  of  frost  is  certain,  all  the  small  tomatoes  should  be 
gathered  from  the  vines  for  pickling  purposes.  The  vines  with  the 
large  tomatoes  on  them  may  then  be  pulled  up  and  hung  in  the  barn, 
or  some  other  sheltered  place  on  rafters.  Sometimes  the  tomatoes 


12 


which  are  nearly  ready  to  ripen  are  gathered,  wrapped  in  paper,  and 
packed  in  boxes.  They  will  ripen  gradually  and  last  a  long  time.  The 
girls  in  the  school  who  cannot  have  a  tenth  acre  garden  should  be 
encouraged  to  have  a  smaller  one,  to  can  their  vegetables  and  keep 
their  records  as  carefully  as  the  canning  club  girls  do.  The  school  itself 
should  offer  some  reward  for  best  results  among  these  small  gardens. 

For  instructions  and  directions  in  tomato  culture  see  bulletins  of 
Georgia  State  College  of  Agriculture  No.  6,  “Girls’  Club  Work  in  Geor¬ 
gia,”  and  Free  Farmers’  Bulletins  Nos.  220,  521,  and  833.  These  cost 
nothing.  Write  to  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  squash,  cucumber,  and  melon  plants  transferred  to  the  open 
ground,  as  indicated  in  “Hot-bed  and  Cold-frame  Gardening,”  will  give 
results  at  least  a  month  earlier  than  from  seeds  planted  after  the  danger 
of  frost  has  passed,  but  the  children  should  be  encouraged  to  continue 
this  culture  by  planting  seeds  as  long  as  the  season  permits.  For  details 
concerning  squash  and  cantaloupe  culture,  see  Free  Farmers’  Bulletin 
No.  255,  and  for  cucumbers,  Bulletin  No.  254. 


13 


Treatment  of  Soil.. 

The  children  should  be  persuaded  to  break  up  the  soil  for  their 
garden  in  the  fall,  and  to  give  it  the  deep  plowing  advocated  for  farms. 
If  a  child  has  only  a  small  plot,  he  can  do  deep  breaking  with  a  fork. 
He  should  be  led  to  add  humus  and  stable  manure  to  it  through  the 
fall  and  winter,  and  to  put  it  in  such  a  condition  that  it  will  conserve  the 
winter  rains.  This  will  give  the  teacher  a  fine  opportunity  to  teach  the 
physical  and  chemical  nature  of  the  soil,  and  how  to  build  it  up.  The 
capacity  of  the  different  kinds  of  soil  for  water,  the  capillarity  of  the 
soil,  and  many  other  lessons  can  easily  be  taught  in  this  connection. 
See  Free  Farmers’  Bulletin  No.  409. 

The  Rotation  of  Crops. 

The  rotation  of  crops,  so  necessary  on  the  farm,  is  also  advantageous 
in  the  garden,  and  the  children  should  be  taught  to  follow  peas  and 
beans  with  corn  or  with  lettuce  and  cabbage,  and  these  with  beets, 
radishes  and  similar  crops.  Sometimes  it  is  well  to  have  a  garden  in 
which  only  half  the  space  is  put  in  vegetables,  while  the  other  is  kept  in 
clover  or  some  other  nitrogen  giving  crop,  the  garden  being  shifted  to 
this  place  when  the  clover  comes  off. 

Successive  Plantings. 

It  is  a  common  custom  in  Georgia  to  plant  a  garden  in  the  early 
summer,  and  when  this  has  passed,  to  do  without  vegetables.  The  chil¬ 
dren  should  be  taught  to  make  successive  plantings  in  their  gardens,  so 
as  to  have  a  great  variety  of  vegetables  from  early  summer  until  frost, 
and  a  somewhat  smaller  variety  through  the  whole  winter.  Peas,  beans, 
radishes  and  beets,  should  be  planted  every  two  weeks  until  about 
six  weeks  before  frost.  Corn  should  be  planted  every  three  weeks 
through  the  same  period.  There  should  be  at  least  three  plantings  of 
tomatoes.  All  other  vegetables  cultivated  in  the  garden  should  have 
as  many  successive  plantings  as  may  be  necessary  to  ensure  a  continuous 
supply. 

Winter  Gardening. 

In  south  Georgia  a  great  variety,  and  in  north  Georgia,  a  goodly 
number  of  vegetables  will  grow  through  the  winter.  Spinach,  mustard, 
kale,  turnips,  turnip -greens,  rutabagas,  leeks,  onions,  parsley,  salsify, 
parsnips,  carrots,  radishes,  and  beets  can  be  had  through  the  winter  as 
far  north  as  Athens.  Parsnips,  salsify,  and  carrots  are  long-season 
vegetables,  and  should  be  sown  not  later  than  June.  They  will  remain 
in  the  ground  until  they  have  to  be  removed  for  spring  plantings,  and 


14 


will  be  entirely  uninjured  by  heavy  freezes.  Turnips,  rutabagas,  beets 
and  some  onion-sets  should  be  planted  in  July  or  August.  These  also 
will  remain  in  the  ground  throughout  the  winter  uninjured  by  freezes. 
Onion-sets  may  be  put  out  at  any  time  from  the  middle  of  July  till  the 
middle  of  March.  Spinach,  mustard,  and  seven-top  turnips  for  greens 
may  be  sown  as  late  as  October,  and  if  well  established  before  frost, 
will  flourish  throughout  the  winter.  Winter  radishes  and  beets  may  be 
sown  through  August  and  September. 

Seed  Catalogues  and  Bulletins. 

Seed  Catalogues  may  be  had  from  Peter  Henderson,  New  York  City; 
from  Livingston  &  Sons,  Columbus,  Ohio;  from  Wood  &  Sons,  Rich¬ 
mond,  Va.;  and  from  H.  G.  Hastings  &  Company,  Atlanta,  Ga.  These 
will  be  very  valuable  in  giving  instructions  for  planting  and  cultivating 
all  sorts  of  vegetables. 

Free  Farmers’  Bulletin  No.  255  can  be  obtained  from  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  gives  a 
valuable  discussion  of  the  home  vegetable  garden.  Other  bulletins  can 
be  obtained  giving  minutely  the  method  of  cultivation  of  certain  veget¬ 
ables.  For  Beans,  see  Bulletin  No.  289;  Cabbage,  No.  433;  Celery,  No. 
282;  Cucumbers,  No.  254;  Onions,  No.  354;  Strawberries,  No.  198;  Rasp¬ 
berries,  No.  213;  Cow  Peas,  No.  318;  Grapes,  No.  471;  Potatoes,  Nos.  35 
and  884;  Asparagus,  No.  61;  and  Tomatoes,  No.  220.  If  a  book  is 
desired,  Bailey’s  Principles  of  Vegetable  Gardening  can  be  bought  from 
the  Macmillan  Company,  Atlanta  or  New  York.  Weed-Emerson’s  “The 
School  Garden  Book,”  and  Meier’s  “School  and  Home  Garden,”  are  also 
very  helpful.  The  first  is  published  by  Charles  Scribner’s  Sons,  the 
latter  by  Ginn  &  Co.  Both  can  be  bought  from  The  Southern  School 
Book  Depository,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Free  Garden  Seed. 

Enough  free  garden  seed  for  distribution  among  the  school  children 
may  be  obtained  from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
through  the  congressman  from  the  district.  In  order  to  obtain  these 
seed  the  teacher  should  write  to  the  congressman  in  November  or  Decem¬ 
ber,  giving  him  a  list  of  the  seeds  desired  and  the  number  of  children 
in  the  school  as  an  indication  of  the  quantity  of  the  seeds  needed. 


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19 


CORN  CLUB  WORK. 

The  corn  clubs  in  Georgia  have  passed  beyond  the  experimental 
stage,  their  immense  value  to  the  State  having  been  fully  demonstrated, 
hence  every  teacher  in  the  State  should  induce  as  many  children  as 
possible  to  join  them. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  demonstration  agents  employed 
by  the  general  government,  by  the  State,  and  by  private  enterprise,  could 
do  this  work  without  the  co-operation  of  the  teachers,  even  though  their 
present  number  should  be  quadrupled.  Last  year  there  were  10,000 
Georgia  boys  enrolled  in  the  corn  clubs,  with  not  more  than  seven 
agents  to  look  after  them.  That  only  2,500  boys  persisted  to  the  end 
was  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  teachers  did  not  feel  their  respon¬ 
sibility  in  the  matter,  and  did  not  co-operate  as  they  should  have  done. 

The  first  thing  that  the  teachers  should  do  is  to  become  familiar  with 
the  work  themselves.  They  should  write  to  J.  Phil  Campbell,  State 
College  of  Agriculture,  Athens,  Ga.,  and  obtain  for  their  own  use  all 
the  bulletins  needed  by  the  corn  club  boys.  These  should  be  carefully 
studied  so  that  the  teacher  can  be  the  leader  of  the  boys.  The  first  thing 
for  the  teacher  to  do  in  helping  the  boys  is  to  see  that  the  acre  is 
properly  laid  off.  Different  shapes  for  the  acre  and  methods  of  laying 
it  off  should  be  discussed  in  the  arithmetic  class  and  the  boys  informed 
about  the  matter.  The  teacher  should  see  that  the  boys  do  deep  fall  plow¬ 
ing  wherever  the  soil  will  allow  this,  and  that  they  put  a  sufficient  quan¬ 
tity  of  humus  on  the  acre  to  make  it  conserve  the  winter  rains  and  render 
the  crop  practically  independent  of  summer  drought.  The  constant 
cultivation  of  the  corn  should  be  urged  upon  them.  They  should  be 
stimulated  to  stir  the  soil  lightly  after  every  rain  so  as  to  conserve  all 
the  moisture  possible,  but  they  should  also  be  taught  that  the  drier  the 
ground,  the  greater  the  need  of  cultivation  in  order  to  make  sure  of  all 
the  moisture  it  has.  In  like  manner,  the  teacher  should  look  after  every 
detail  of  the  work,  visiting  the  acres  frequently  and  helping  the  boys 
in  every  way  possible. 

The  records  which  are  required  by  the  corn  clubs  can  be  utilized  by 
the  teacher  in  reading,  spelling,  language,  composition,  and  arithmetic 
work,  and  therefore  should  be  made  at  the  school  and  inspected  by  the 
teacher,  the  periods  usually  given  to  the  subjects  mentioned  being  used 
for  them  whenever  necessary. 

One  embarrassment  for  the  teacher  has  come  from  the  fact  that  not 
all  the  children  in  certain  classes  join  the  corn  clubs,  and  there  is  not 
time  enough,  aside  from  the  regular  class  work,  to  give  the  necessary 
instructions.  This  trouble  can  be  obviated  by  giving  the  instruction  to 
the  whole  class  or  to  several  classes  combined,  and  then  utilizing  it  as  a 
basis  for  other  subjects  as  has  been  indicated.  It  will  be  well  to  per¬ 
suade  such  children  as  do  not  belong  to  the  corn  club  to  undertake  to 


20 


cultivate  a  smaller  plot,  say  a  square  rod,  according  to  corn  club  direc¬ 
tions.  But  whether  they  do  that  or  not,  there  is  no  better  way  to 
arouse  interest  in  the  subject  than  by  teaching  it  to  all  the  children  at 
suitable  times  throughout  the  session. 

Illustrative  Series  of  Lessons. 

Take  Free  Farmers’  Bulletin,  No.  229,  and  have  several  children  read 
to  the  class  the  marks  of  a  desirable  stalk  of  corn,  pages  6  and  7.  Make 
sure  of  the  attention  of  the  whole  class  to  the  matter  read.  Manage  the 
reading  as  you  would  any  other  reading  lesson.  In  the  language  period, 
question  the  children  about  what  was  read,  until  all  the  marks  of  a  good 
stalk  of  corn  are  developed,  and  have  the  children  write  these  on  the 
board  as  an  outline  for  a  composition.  Have  the  children  talk  this  over 
with  the  teacher  until  the  matter  is  rich  and  full,  and  they  are 
perfectly  familiar  with  it.  Utilize  this  conversation  as  an  oral  language 
lesson.  The  children  are  now  ready  to  go  to  a  nearby  field  and  select 
good  stalks  of  corn.  If  this  is  not  possible,  have  each  child  bring  a 
good  stalk  from  his  father’s  field,  and  have  the  children  compare  and 
judge  the  stalks. 

Compositions  should  be  written  by  the  class  according  to  the  outline 
developed.  Go  over  these,  and  select  three  or  four  of  the  best  to  have 
read  before  the  class. 

Make  a  list  of  the  misspelled  words  and  have  them  for  a  spelling 
lesson. . 

Make  a  list  of  the  grammatical  mistakes  and*  use  them  for  a  grammar 
lesson,  assigning  the  children  the  parts  of  the  text-book  bearing  upon 
these  mistakes,  as  home  work. 

Make  a  record  of  all  the  bad  sentences  and  have  the  children  recon¬ 
struct  them.  In  like  manner,  the  selection  of  the  best  ear,  the  germina¬ 
tion  of  the  seed,  the  preparation  of  the  soil,  the  mixing  of  the  fertilizers, 
and  every  other  detail  of  corn  culture  can  be  made  the  basis  of  lessons 
in  the  subjects  mentioned,  and  also  of  very  valuable  work  in  arithmetic. 
The  children  should  make  germination  boxes  themselves  as  manual 
training,  and  each  should  test  several  ears  of  corn,  finding  and  record¬ 
ing  percentages  of  germination,  length  of  sprouts,  &c. 

The  children  should  study  carefully  the  root  development  of  corn, 
from  the  sprouting  of  the  seed  to  maturity,  and  make  careful  drawings 
of  it.  The  method  of  corn  reproduction,  the  reasons  for  detasseling, 
cross-pollination,  and  many  other  subjects  can  be  given  as  nature  work. 
For  definite  instructions,  see  Bulletin  of  Georgia  State  College  of  Agri¬ 
culture,  (Boys  Corn  Club)  No.  3,  and  Free  Farmers’  Bulletins  Nos.  229, 
313,  537,  741,  503,  644,  414,  and  415.  These  may  be  obtained  from 
The  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  from  the  United  States  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D,  C. 


21 


HOUSEKEEPING  AND  SANITATION  IN  THE  RURAL 

SCHOOLS. 

“Cleanliness  is  next  to  Godliness”  finds  ample  demonstration  in  an 
ordinary  common  school,  where  it  is  so  nearly  related  to  the  health  and 
happiness  of  human  life. 

The  Schoolroom. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  school  house  has  already  been  'built,  that  it  is 
properly  located,  and  that  it  is  of  sufficient  size  to  accommodate  all  the 
children  of  the  district.  It  should  be  situated  on  an  elevation,  not  too 
close  to  creeks,  swamps,  and  marshes.  For  proper  form,  size,  location, 
&c.,  see  “School  Architecture”  Department ‘of  Education,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

A  large  supply  of  light  should  flood  the  schoolroom  during  school 
hours.  An  insufficient  supply  will  injure  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  quickly 
and  permanently.  The  light  should  come  from  the  left  and  the  rear  of 
the  children  rather  than  from  the  front.  Direct  sunlight  should  not 
fall  upon  the  desk  or  book  of  any  pupil  while  he  is  studying. 

Ventilation. 

The  ventilation  of  the  room  should  have  the  constant  and  careful 
attention  of  the  teacher  and  trustees  of  the  school.  Broken  window- 
panes  should  be  immediately  replaced  with  whole  ones,  as  partial 
draughts  on  children  often  cause  serious  and  sometimes  lasting  results 
in  poor  health.  Cracks  in  the  floor  should  not  be  allowed  to  exist, 
where  the  room  is  well  constructed,  at  least  one  window  should  be  left 
open  on  the  side  opposite  the  wind,  and  if  the  weather  will  permit,  all 
the  windows  on  that  side  should  be  open.  Fresh  air  and  sunshine  tend 
to  keep  down  disease,  and  should  be  used  freely. 

Heating. 

Proper  heating  of  the  room  is  quite  necessary.  Under-heating  is  less 
injurious  than  over-heating.  An  iron  stove  should  be  used  where  better 
forms  of  heating  cannot  be  afforded.  The  pipe  should  have  at  least 
one  elbow  in  it  in  order  that  the  heat  may  be  kept  in  the  room,  and 
the  pipe  should  be  thoroughly  riveted  to  prevent  any  falling.  A  zinc  or 
tin  mat  should  be  placed  under  the  stove,  and  there  should  be  a  per¬ 
forated  radiator  enclosing  the  fire-pot  to  prevent  danger  to  children, 
and  to  mix  more  evenly  the  hot  air  with  the  cooler. 

Cloak  Rooms. 

Every  schoolroom  should  have  cloak  rooms  for  hats,  cloaks,  and 
lunches.  These  articles  should  never  be  allowed  in  the  desks  of  the 
children.  Nails  or  hat-hangers  should  be  placed  on  the  walls  of  the 


22 


cloak  room,  a  number  should  be  placed  over  each,  and  each  assigned 
to  one  particular  child.  There  should  be  shelves  to  hold  the  lunches 
and  dinner-buckets  of  the  children.  No  crumbs  should  be  allowed  to 
remain  on  the  floor,  as  rats  and  mice  will  be  drawn  to  the  room  to  the 
injury  of  flowers  and  books.  The  cloak  room  should  not  be  made  a  place 
for  storage  of  plunder  and  useless  material. 

If  a  good  cloak  room  cannot  be  afforded,  one  may  be  improvised  by 
cutting  off,  a  narrow  part  of  the  room  with  canvas  cloth.  This  will  not 
cost  much  and  the  appearance  of  the  room  will  be  much  improved. 

Scouring. 

The  floor  of  the  schoolroom  should  be  kept  clean.  It  should  not  be 
used  after  vacation  until  it  has  been  swept,  brushed,  dusted  and  scoured. 
Even  the  desks  should  be  washed,  the  walls  and  ceiling  brushed,  and  the 
windows  cleaned  inside  and  out. 

The  glasses  of  the  windows  may  be  cleaned  with  some  such 
preparation  as  “Bon-Ami,”  which  may  be  purchased  at  most  grocery 
stores.  In  the  absence  of  this,  use  cloths  sprinkled  with  kerosene  oil, 
and  then  polish  with  a  dry  soft  cloth.  Use  a  step-ladder  to  reach  the 
windows  or  tie  a  mop  to  the  end  of  a  pole  and  do  the  work  with  that. 

For  cleaning  the  window-sills,  sash-frames,  chalk-trenches,  and 
mouldings,  add  two  tablespoonfuls  of  kerosene  oil  to  one  bucketful  of 
water,  and  apply  with  a  cloth. 

Lastly  the  floor  should  be  well  scoured.  Having  cleared  it  of  all 
movable  furniture,  wet  it  thoroughly  with  an  easily  procured  potash 
preparation,  or  strong  soap  and  water,  and  scrub  with  a  mop  until  clean, 
rinsing  it  well  with  clear  water.  The  old  fashioned  shuck  mop  is  prob¬ 
ably  the  best  and  the  most  available  in  the  country,  but  sacks  may  be 
wrapped  on  a  weeding-hoe  and  used  to  good  effect,  or  a  worn  cane 
stick-broom  may  prove  a  good  substitute. 

Floor  Dressing. 

After  being  thoroughly  cleaned,  it  would  be  well  for  the  floor  to 
have  a  coat  of  floor-dressing  or  floor  oil  which  can  be  ob¬ 
tained  from  any  disinfectant  company,  as  West  Disinfecting  Company 
or  The  Frederick  Disinfectant  Company,  both  Atlanta,  Ga.  This  will 
cost  not  over  one  dollar  per  gallon,  and  one  gallon  will  dress  one  room, 
with  enough  left  for  the  closet  floors.  This  preparation  will  keep  down 
the  dust  and  kill  disease  germs. 

Sweeping. 

Before  the  sweeping  is  begun,  spider  webs,  and  other  deposits  should 
be  brushed  from  the  walls  and  furniture,  the  broom  dampened  with 
kerosene  water,  and  the  doors  and  windows  opened.  The  sweeper  should 


23 


use  a  heavy,  steady  pull,  rather  than  a  jerk  which  raises  the  dust,  and 
should  go  from  the  walls  toward  the  center  of  the  room,  in  order  that 
the  dust  may  not  be  blown  back  by  the  wind.  When  the  trash  is  in  a 
heap,  it  should  be  taken  up  in  a  dust  pan,  put  in  a  box  or  basket,  and 
carried  to  a  trash  pit  at  some  distance  from  the  house,  where  it  should  be 
burned  at  suitable  times.  The  pit  should  be  dug  a  few  feet  deep,  and 
may  be  enclosed  with  a  small  piece  of  wire  fencing. 

All  sweeping  should  be  done  thoroughly,  leaving  no  corners  or  places 
under  desks  or  stove  unswept.  If  there  are  rugs,  they  should  be  taken 
up  and  shaken,  and  the  space  under  them  swept.  When  the  work  is 
complete,  the  broom  should  be  dipped  into  the  bucket  of  kerosene  wTater, 
and  hung  with  straw  downward  to  dry. 

The  sweeping  should  be  done  at  least  once  a  day,  and,  if  possible, 
twice.  After  a  little  wise  and  tactful  teaching  of  sanitation,  the  children 
will  sweep  cheerfully,  if  no  janitor  service  is  available.  Fine  results 
have  been  obtained  by  dividing  the  children  into  housekeeping  groups, 
and  exciting  emulation  among  the  groups. 

Papers  should  never  be  allowed  to  lie  on  the  floor  or  on  any  part  of 
(he  grounds.  The  time  to  pick  up  a  paper  is  the  moment  it  drops. 
Children  should  be  trained  not  to  tear  up  paper  without  a  purpose,  and 
to  put  all  useless  paper  into  a  basket  or  box  provided  for  the  purpose. 
Some  teachers  have  the  children  make  pretty  little  bags,  and  hang  them 
on  the  desks  to  hold  necessary  waste  paper.  Under  no  circumstances 
should  paper  be  swept  into  the  yard.  Dirty  papers  are  carriers  of  many 
deadly  disease  germs,  are  frequently  selected  by  flies  as  places  of  deposit 
for  their  eggs,  are  ugly,  untidy  and  in  every  way  objectionable. 

Dusting. 

As  soon  as  all  dust  has  settled,  the  room  should  be  carefully  dusted. 
Instead  of  the  ordinary  dust-brushes,  lintless  clothes  should  be  used. 
These  may  be  made  of  flour  or  sugar  sacks,  and  should  be  of  convenient 
size  for  the  hand.  Moisten  the  cloths  with  kerosene  water,  and  rub 
carefully  the  furniture,  as  well  as  every  other  dust-catching  surface. 
The  kerosene  in  the  water  will  tend  to  polish  the  furniture  each  time  it 
is  rubbed,  and  it  serves  as  a  disinfectant  and  deodorizer,  making  the 
room  unpleasant  for  flies.  After  the  dusting  is  completed,  wash  the 
dust-cloths  in  soap  and  water,  and  hang  them  in  the  sun  to  dry. 

Water. 

The  drinking  water  should  be  kept  in  a  closed  cooler  from  which  it 
may  be  drawn  through  a  faucet  and  not  in  an  open  vessel  exposed  to 
dust.  If  the  ordinary  cooler  cannot  be  had,  a  keg  with  a  capacity  of 
five  or  ten  gallons  may  be  used.  It  should  be  covered  at  the  top  and 


24 


have  a  faucet  from  which  the  water  may  be  drawn.  A  bucket  or  basin 
should  be  placed  under  the  faucet  to  catch  all  waste  water. 

The  children  should  be  encouraged  to  procure  individual  drinking 
cups  for  use  in  the  school.  A  common  dipper  should  be  early  dispensed 
with,  as  it  is  a  common  carrier  of  disease  germs. 

Each  child  should  be  encouraged  to  have  his  own  towel  and  soap, 
and,  instead  of  the  common  pan  or  basin  for  washing,  they  should  have 
water  poured  upon  the  hands. 

The  well  or  spring  from  which  water  is  supplied  to  a  school  should 
be  rigidly  cleaned  and  kept  free  from  the  surface  water  which  might 
contaminate  it.  Mud  puddles  should  not  be  allowed  to  exist  near  the 
source  of  water  supply.  The  well  should  be  covered  so  that  nothing  can 
fall  into  it. 

Yards. 

The  school  yard  should  present  an  example  of  cleanliness  to  the 
whole  community.  A  litter  of  papers  about  the  yard  will  spoil  its 
appearance,  no  matter  how  well  it  may  otherwise  be  kept.  Papers  may 
easily  be  picked  up  with  a  sharp  stick,  and  placed  in  the  paper  pit.  The 
children  should  be  required  to  keep  all  trash  off  the  grounds  and  the  yards 
should  be  swept  every  week. 

Closets. 

Closets,  at  suitable  distances  from  each  other  and  from  the  school¬ 
room,  should  be  kept  decent  and  clean.  Lime,  ashes,  and  kerosene  oil 
are  good  disinfectants  and  deodorants,  and  should  be  freely  used  each 
day  to  keep  the  closets  in  a  sanitary  condition. 

For  specifications  for  “Sanitary  Surface  Privy”  see  Bulletin  Geor¬ 
gia  State  Board  of  Health,  Yol.  1,  No.  3.  Address  Georgia  State  Board 
of  Health,  Atlanta,  Ga.  Consult  also  “School  Architecture,”  Department 
of  Education,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Prevention  of  the  Spreading  of  Disease. 

When  a  child  is  present  in  school  with  a  suspected  case  of  con¬ 
tagious  disease,  such  as  measles,  mumps,  chicken-pox,  small-pox,  whoop¬ 
ing-cough,  sore-eyes,  skin  disease,  or  fever  of  any  kind,  it  is  advisable 
to  take  him  apart  from  the  school  at  once  and  ask  him  to  go  home  until 
a  conference  may  be  had  with  the  parents.  The  teacher  should  seek  this 
conference  as  early  as  possible,  and  ask  that  a  physician  be  consulted. 
This  action  should  be  taken  for  the  good  of  the  school  and  the  whole 
community. 

A  child  known  to  be  affected  with  any  contagious  disease,  or  exposed 
thereto,  should  be  suspended  from  school  for  a  certain  period  of  days, 
which  period  may  be  definitely  learned  from  any  well-informed 
physician. 


25 


TEACHING  COOKING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS. 

The  first,  and  generally  effective,  obstacle  that  confronts  the  rural 
school  teacher  when  the  subject  of  teaching  cooking  is  suggested,  is  the 
entire  lack  of  room  or  equipment.  This  is  usually  a  greater  discourage¬ 
ment  than  even  a  lack  of  training  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  However, 
like  many  of  our  troubles,  it  is  mainly  imaginary.  It  is  the  purpose  of 
this  Bulletin  to  point  an  easy  solution  to  the  first  problem,  and  to  remedy, 
as  far  as  possible,  the  second. 

The  subject  of  Cooking  will  be  treated  under  the  following  heads: 

1.  Winer eH  Place  and  equipment. 

2.  What?  A  selection  of  Foods.  Food  values  and  combinations. 

3.  Why?  A  discussion  of  Dietetics,  &c. 

4.  How?  Simple  directions  and  a  few  typical  receipts. 

5.  Serving.  Conventionalities;  Menus;  &c. 

6.  Canning  and  Preserving.  Economy,  Thrift,  &c. 

1.  WHERE1? 

(a)  At  the  school',  (b)  At  the  homes. 

(a)  Under  the  direct  instructions  and  supervision  of  the  teacher  at 
the  school,  in  regular  hour  periods  once  a  week,  and  at  the  noon  recess  or 
other  odd  times. 

(b)  At  the  homes  either  in  clubs  or  individually  according  to  sug¬ 
gestions  from  the  teacher  and  the  mothers,  the  children  affording  real 
help  in  the  family  daily  work,  with  results  reported  to  the  teacher.  For 
this  some  school  credits  might  be  given. 

School  Equipment :  The  ordinary  school  heating  stove,  a  one- 
compartment  Fireless  Cooker,  (cost  from  $5.00  to  $10.00),  and,  if 
possible,  for  use  during  the  summer  months  when  the  heating  stove  is 
out,  a  one-burner  oil  stove.  (Cost  about  $5.00.)  A  great  deal  can  be 
done  with  the  ordinary  school  heating  stove. 

Utensils :  Besides  the  utensils  that  come  with  the  Fireless  Cooker, 
the  following  will  be  needed:  Three  triangular  nested  boilers  for  the 
Fireless  Cooker  or  the  heater,  (Cost  $3.00) ;  One  oil-stove  baker,  $2.00; 
one  large  dish  pan;  1  pie  pan;  1  pitcher;  1  grater;  1  qt.  coffee  pot;  1 
egg  beater;  1  sauce  pan;  muffin  pans;  measures;  knife,  fork,  &  spoon; 
1  wooden  spoon. 

If  possible  let  all  utensils  be  of  aluminum. 

The  above  itemized  list  of  utensils  is  intended  only  as  a  minimum  re¬ 
quirement  for  a  school  equipment.  A  liberal  and  first-class  home 
kitchen  equipment  is  a  source  of  genuine  economy,  and  should  be  care¬ 
fully  considered  and  encouraged.  The  home  kitchen  is  the  most  im¬ 
portant  room  in  the  house,  and  on  it  depends  the  physical  life,  and  in 


% 


26 


large  measure  the  spiritual  life,  of  the  family.  At  least  as  much  expense 
should  be  devoted  to  beautifying  and  equipping  the  home  kitchen  as 
the  home  parlor. 

2.  WHAT  ? 

Foods  and  Food  Values. 

The  foods  needed  to  build  up  and  sustain  the  body  are  divided  into 
five  classes,  each  of  which  has  a  special  work  to  do  in  the  body.  For 
that  reason  a  proper  proportion  of  each  class  of  foods  should  be 
provided  for  each  meal. 

Five  Classes  of  Foods. 

Source  and  Use  of  the  Chief  Food  Constituents. 

1.  Proteins.  Lean  meats;  gluten  in  flour;  eggs,  milk,  cheese,  fish, 
beans  and  peas.  Proteins  build  tissue  and  repair  its  daily  waste.  They 
are  especially  valuable  in  bone  building. 

2.  Fats.  Butter,  cheese,  fats  in  meats,  cream,  olive  oil,  cotton 
seed  oil,  oil  in  nuts.  Fats  give  heat  and  energy  and  produce  fat. 

3.  Carbohydrates,  (a)  Sugar:  Fruit,  cane,  beet,  maple,  malt, 
and  honey,  (b)  Starch:  Peas,  beans,  potatoes,  and  cereals  such  as  rice, 
corn,  wheat,  oats,  rye  and  barley. 

Carbohydrates  give  heat  and  energy  and  produce  fat.  Fats  and 
carbohydrates  are  called  fuel  foods  because  they  produce  heat. 

4.  Minerals  Salts.  Fruit  Acids  and  Vegetables.  They  aid  in 
the  formation  of  bone,  help  digestion  and  are  useful  in  the  blood. 
Greens  and  salads  are  rich  in  minerals  and  should  be  used  freely. 

5.  Water.  This  is  found  in  all  foods,  but  should  be  used  liberally 
in  its  pure  form.  It  carries  food  to  the  blood,  carries  off  waste,  helps 
to  regulate  temperature  and  is  a  solvent  for  food. 

Note: — For  a  study  of  the  proportionate  amount  of  each  element 
required  and  for  a  table  of  Food  Values,  refer  to  Farmers’  Bulletin  No. 
142.  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture,  “Principles  of  Nutrition  and  Nutritive 
Values.”  Also  to  chapter  on  Food  and  Health,  Ritchie’s  Primer  of 
Physiology;  Home  Economics  Circular,  No.  1,  Iowa  State  College  of 
Agriculture,  Ames,  Iowa;  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.  Bulletin  No.  28,  “Composi¬ 
tion  of  Foods”  and  to  Prof.  Murray’s  “Economy  of  Nurition,”  (A. 
B.  Co).  Dr.  Langworthy’s  Food  Charts,  1  to  14,  may  be  had  for  $1.00, 
sent  to  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture. 
These  14  large  colored  wall  charts  are  invaluable  to  any  school. 


27 

3.  HOW? 

COOKING. 


Weights  and  Measures. 

Abbreviations:  c.  means  cup;  tsp.,  teaspoon;  tbsp.,  tablespoon;  4c. 
flour  =;  1  lb ;  2c.  sugar  =  1  lb. ;  2c.  butter  —  1  lb. ;  16  tbsp  =  1  c. ;  2 
tbsp.  butter  =  1  oz.;  4  tbsp.  flour  =  1  oz. 

BREAD  MAKING. 

Light  Bread. 

Scald  the  milk  or  boil  the  water  to  kill  any  germs  that  may  interfere 
with  the  action  of  the  yeast.  Put  the  shortening,  salt  and  sugar  into 
the  mixing  bowl  and  pour  the  hot  liquid  over  them.  Cool  till  lukewarm, 
(hot  liquid  will  kill  yeast).  Soften  the  yeast  cake  in  lukewarm  water, 
and  add  to  the  other  liquids.  Add  flour  gradually,  stirring  with  a  knife. 
When  the  dough  is  stiff  enough  to  handle,  turn  out  on  a  floured  board 
and  knead  until  soft  and  elastic,  so  as  to  mix  thoroughly.  Place  in  a 
buttered  bowl,  buttering  the  tojD  of  the  dough  to  prevent  a  dry  crust 
from  forming.  Cover  and  allow  to  rise  in  a  warm  place  until  double 
its  bulk.  Then  knead  until  all  gas  bubbles  are  small  and  evenly  dis¬ 
tributed  through  the  dough.  Shape  into  loaves  and  biscuits,  and  place 
in  greased  pans.  Allow  it  to  rise  in  pans  until  double  its  bulk.  Bake 
the  biscuits  25  to  35  minutes,  and  the  loaves  45  to  60  minutes  in  a  hot 
oven.  When  the  bread  is  baked,  remove  it  from  the  pans  and  place  it  on 
a  rack  to  cool.  Cover  with  a  clean,  thin  cloth,  but  do  not  wrap.  Scald 
the  bread  box,  and  when  the  bread  is  cold,  put  it  into  the  box  with  a 
close  fitting  cover. 

Receipts  for  Light  Bread. 

Mix  and  bake  according  to  the  above  directions. 

1  cup  water.  2  tbsp.  shortening. 

1  cup  milk.  2  tsp.  salt. 

2  tbsp.  sugar.  5%  cups  flour. 

y±  yeast  cake. 

Biscuit. 

Batters  and  doughs  are  made  to  rise  by  adding  some  material  which 
will  make  bubbles  of  gas  in  the  mixture.  These  bubbles  are  caught  in 
little  sacs  of  the  gluten  in  the  flour,  and  when  the  baking  begins,  the 
heat  causes  the  imprisoned  bubbles  to  expand,  thus  making  the  mixture 
rise.  Pure  baking  powder  is  composed  of  cream  of  tartar,  bi-car¬ 
bonate  of  soda,  and  starch.  Cheap  baking  powders  contain  alum,  and 


28 


are  injurious.  Good  baking  powder  can  be  made  at  home  by  the 
following  receipt : 

2 14  lbs.  cream  tartar.  1  lb.  bi-earbonate  of  soda. 

1  to  2  c.  flour  or  corn  starch. 

Weigh  the  materials,  mix  them,  and  sift  at  least  seven  times. 
Store  in  tight  jars  or  cans  ready  for  use. 

Baking  Powder  Biscuits. 

1  pt.  flour.  y2  tsp.  salt. 

4  tsp.  baking  powder.  2  tbsp.  shortening. 

%  c.  milk. 

Mix  and  sift  dry  ingredients.  Work  in  the  shortening  until  the 
mixture  resembles  fine  meal.  Add  the  liquid  gradually  to  make  a 
dough  as  soft  as  can  be  handled.  Mix  with  a  knife  or  spoon.  Toss 
on  a  floured  board,  and  roll  until  half  inch  thick.  Cut  with  a  floured 
biscuit  cutter.  Place  close  together  in  a  greased  pan  and  bake  in 
a  hot  oven  until  well  cooked.  Be  sure  to  brown  both  top  and  bottom. 
If  biscuits  are  not  brown  on  the  bottom  when  removed  from  oven, 
place  the  pan  on  top  of  the  stove  until  they  are.  Never  leave  the 
middle  of  the  biscuits  imperfectly  cooked.  The  crust  is  the  part  most 
easily  digested.  Eating  too  much  crumb,  especially  rare  crumb,  will 
cause  indigestion. 

Butter  Milk  Biscuit. 

1  pt.  flour.  1  tbsp.  shortening. 

1  tsp.  salt.  %  c.  buttermilk. 

1  tsp.  soda  (varying  with  the 
acidity  of  the  buttermilk.) 

Mix  as  for  baking  powder  biscuits,  making  the  dough  a  little 
smoother  and  stiffer.  Roll  from  ^4  to  y2  inch  thick,  cut  and  bake  as 
before.  If  biscuits  are  yellow,  use  less  soda. 

Corn  Bread. 


%  c.  corn  meal. 

%  c.  flour. 

3  tsp.  baking  powder. 
1  tbsp.  sugar. 

1  egg. 


y2  c.  boiling  water. 

%  tbsp.  melted  butter. 
3/i  tsp.  salt. 

%  c.  milk. 


Scald  the  meal  in  y2  c.  boiling  water.  Add  milk,  dry  materials 
sifted  together,  egg  and  melted  butter.  Beat  well.  Pour  into  a  greased 
pan  and  bake  in  a  hot  oven. 


29 


Wheat  Muffins. 

14c.  butter.  e.  butter. 

1  egg.  %  c.  milk. 

1  y2  c.  flour.  3  tsp.  baking  powder. 

Cream  the  butter,  add  sugar  and  egg  which  has  been  well  beaten, 
sift  baking  powder  with  flour,  and  add  to  first  mixture,  alternating  with 
milk.  Bake  in  buttered  muffin  pans  until  well  browned.  The  baking 
ought  to  last  a  half  hour. 

Write  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for 
the  following  Farmers’  Bulletins  for  further  study:  No.  298,  Food 
Value  of  Com  and  Corn  Products.  No.  389,  Bread  and  Bread  Making. 

Eggs. 

Eggs  should  be  washed  as  soon  as  brought  in,  and  kept  in  a  cool 
place.  Water  in  which  eggs  are  cooked  should  not  boil,  but  should 
be  kept  at  a  temperature  of  from  180°  to  160°. 

Soft  Boiled  Eggs. 

(1)  Put  them  into  boiling  water  and  immediately  remove  the  pan 
from  the  stove.  They  will  be  cooked  in  from -5  to  10  minutes. 

(2)  Put  the  eggs  into  cold  water  and  put  them  on  the  stove.  When 
the  water  reaches  boiling  point  they  are  ready  to  serve.  The  first  method 
is  the  best. 

Hard  Boiled  Eggs. 

Put  the  eggs  into  boiling  water  and  remove  the  pan  immediately  to 
the  back  of  stove  where  it  will  not  boil.  Leave  for  forty  five  minutes 

Scrambled  Eggs. 

1  egg.  Vs  tsp.  salt. 

1  tbsp.  milk.  1-16  tsp.  pepper. 

y2  tsp.  butter. 

Beat  the  egg  thoroughly.  Add  salt,  pepper,  and  milk.  Melt  the 
butter  in  pan  over  moderate  heat.  Pour  in  the  mixture  and  cook 
slowly,  continually  scraping  from  bottom  of  the  pan.  When  creamy 
turn  out  on  a  hot  dish  and  serve  at  once. 

Omelet. 

4  eggs.  4  tbsp.  milk. 

y2  tsp.  salt.  y2  tsp.  pepper. 

2  tbsp.  butter. 

Beat  eggs  slightly,  just  enough  to  blend  yolks  with  the  whites,  add 
milk  and  seasonings.  Put  the  butter  in  a  moderately  hot  pan  and  when 


30 


melted  turn  in  the  mixture.  Cook  slowly  on  the  top  of  the  stove. 
When  evenly  brown,  fold  over  and  put  on  a  hot  dish.  Serve  at  once. 

Fried  Eggs. 

Note? — Don’t  fry  them.  *  *  *  *  Not  wholesome. 

Refer  to  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  No.  128,  Eggs  and  Their 
Uses.  Also  to  Short  Course  Class  Notes  No.  4.,  Iowa  State  College, 
Ames,  Iowa. 

SOUPS. 

I.  Cream  Soups: 

1.  Source  of  fuel  food. 

2.  Served  with  a  light  meal  rather  than  a  heavy  meal. 

3.  Give  an  opportunity  to  use  great  variety  of  vegetables. 

4.  Give  an  opportunity  to  use  fish  and  oysters. 

5.  Give  an  opportunity  to  increase  food  value  by  adding  egg. 

II.  Stock  Soups : 

1.  Clear  stock  soups  are  used  with  heavy  meal  as  an  appetizer. 

2.  Stock,  with  the  addition  of  meat  and  vegetables,  gives  added 

food  value. 


Brown  Soup  Stock. 


2  lbs.  meat  (%  bone). 
2  pts.  cold  water. 

%  tsp.  salt. 

6  peppercorns. 

1  sprig  parsley. 


2  cloves. 

Vs  sweet  pepper. 

%  tsp.  sweet  herbs. 

2  tbsp.  each  of  carrot,  onion  and 
celery. 


Wipe  and  cut  the  meat  in  inch  cubes.  Brown  %  of  meat  in  hot 
frying  pan  in.  marrow  from  marrow  bone.  Put  remaining  two-thirds 
with  bone  and  fat  in  soup  kettle,  add  cold  water  and  let  stand  for  30 
minutes.  Place  on  back  of  range,  add  browned  meat  and  heat  gradually 
to  boiling  point.  As  scum  rises  it  should  be  removed.  Cover  and  cook 
slowly  below  boiling  point  three  hours.  Add  vegetables  and  seasonings 
1^2  hours  before  removing  stock  from  stove.  Strain  and  cool  as 
quickly  as  possible. 


Cream  of  Vegetable  Soups  (Puree). 

A  puree  is  made  by  adding  the  pulp  of  a  cooked  vegetable  to  milk 
or  cream.  The  milk  is  thickened,  (white  sauce)  with  flour  or  corn  starch 
in  order  to  bind  the  solid  and  liquid  parts  of  the  soup  together. 


31 


2  c.  peas. 

1  tsp.  sugar. 

3  c.  milk. 

%  tsp.  mustard. 

Drain  liquor  from  peas. 


Cream  of  Pea  Soup. 

2  tbsp.  butter. 


1  Yz  tbsp.  flour. 
1  tsp.  salt. 

V2  tsp.  pepper. 
Rub  peas  through  a  sieve. 


Add  seasoning's. 


Melt  butter,  add  flour  and  blend  thoroughly.  Add  milk  gradually.  Add 
the  pea  mixture.  Cook  until  it  thickens.  Strain  through  a  sieve. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  MEAT  COOKERY. 

1.  Heat  hardens  protein. 

Sear  meat  to  retain  juices. 

Cook  slowly  to  make  tender. 

Extract  albumen  by  soaking  in  cold  water. 

2.  Heat  decomposes  fat. 

Cook  fats  at  a  low  temperature,  (bacon,  pork  chops). 

Remove  fat  from  pan  as  fast  as  it  fries  out  of  the  meat. 

Aims  in  Cooking  Soups. 

1.  To  extract  the  juices,  as  in  soups,  broths  and  beef  teas. 

2.  To  retain  the  juices,  as  in  broiling,  roasting,  boiling,  and  frying. 

3.  Combination  of  both  as  in  stewing  and  brazing  where  part  of 

the  juices  are  retained  and  part  extracted. 

Amount  Required. 

Amount  of  meat  needed  by  system  depends  upon  age,  occupation, 
climatic  conditions  and  condition  of  system. 

Pan  Broiled  Steak. 

Heat  skillet.  Scrape  steak  lightly  to  remove  any  pieces  of  broken 
bones.  Wipe  with  damp  cloth.  Place  steak  in  hot  skillet.  Turn  from 
side  to  side  until  well  seared.  Heat  platter.  Move  to  cooler  part  of 
stove  or  lower  the  heat.  Cook  slowly  until  pink  inside.  If  the  steak 
is  more  than  1  inch  thick,  cover  the  skillet  after  the  steak  has  been 
thoroughly  seared.  Add  salt  and  pepper  just  before  taking  from  the 
pan.  Place  on  the  hot  platter.  Add  lemon  sauce  or  plain  butter. 
Garnish  with  slices  of  lemon  and  sprigs  of  parsley  if  you  wish. 

Bacon. 

In  order  to  slice  bacon  very  thin,  it  must  be  cold  and  firm.  Cut 
off  the  rind  and  tough  lower  skin,  then  slice  very  thin.  Place  the 
bacon  in  skillet  and  turn  until  it  is  brown.  Drain  fat  from  pan  as 


32 


fast  as  it  fries  out.  Do  not  serve  bacon  that  looks  greasy.  It 
must  be  dry.  Save  the  bacon  fat  for  cooking  purposes.  The  bacon 
slices  may  be  put  into  a  baking  pan,  and  cooked  in  the  oven.  Bacon 
should  be  thoroughly  drained  before  taking  to  the  table.  It  should  be 
crisp  and  evenly  browned. 

Note:  Write  to  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture  for  Farmers’  Bulletin 
No.  391,  The  Economical  Use  of  Meat  in  the  Home;  and  No.  31,  Meats, 
Composition  and  Cooking. 

VEGETABLES. 


Vegetables  are  of  great  value  in  the  daily  diet. 


1. 

They  give  muscle-building 
food. 

4. 

They  give 

bulk. 

2. 

They  give  fuel  food. 

5. 

They  give 

flavor. 

3. 

They  give  mineral  matter. 

6. 

They  give 

water. 

Suggestions  for  Cooking. 

1.  Allow  1  tsp.  salt  to  1  quart  water. 

2.  Use  enough  water  to  cover  vegetables. 

3.  Cook  highly  flavored  vegetables  uncovered. 

4.  Cook  starchy  vegetables  in  boiling  water. 

Refer  to  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture  Farmers’  Bulletin  No.  121,  Beans, 
Peas,  &c.,  as  Food,  also  to  State  College  of  Agriculture,  Athens,  Ga., 
Bulletin  No.  6. 

General  Directions  for  Making  Sauces. 

Put  butter  in  sauce  pan  or  double  boiler,  stir  until  melted  and  bub¬ 
bling;  add  flour  mixed  with  seasonings,  and  stir  until  thoroughly  cooked. 
Gradually  pour  on  the  liquid,  stirring  constantly.  Cook  until  smooth 
and  glossy. 

I.  Thin  White  Sauce — White  Sauce  for  Soups. 

1  tbsp  flour.  y2  tsp.  salt. 

1  tbsp.  butter.  Yg  tsp.  pepper. 

1  c.  hot  milk. 

II.  Medium  White  Sauce — White  Sauce  for  Vegetables. 

2  tbsp.  flour.  y2  tsp.  salt. 

2  tbsp.  butter.  Yg  tsp.  pepper. 

1  c.  hot  milk. 

III.  Thick  White  Sauce — White  Sauce  for  Croquettes. 

4  tbsp.  flour.  1  tsp.  salt. 

4  tbsp.  butter.  Yg  tsp.  pepper. 

1  c.  hot  milk. 


33 


Gravy. 


4  tbsp.  flour. 
4  tbsp.  fat. 

2  c.  stock. 


1  tsp.  salt, 
tsp.  pepper. 


Lemon  Sauce  for  Fish. 


3  tbsp.  flour. 

5  tbsp.  butter. 
1  y2  c.  water. 


Y2  tsp.  salt. 

Ys  tsp.  pepper. 

2  tbsp.  lemon  juice. 


(Follow  directions  for  making  sauces). 


FRUITS. 


Fruits  furnish  real  food  values  in  the  form  of  carbohydrates, 
protein,  mineral  matter,  and  water.  They  relieve  thirst  and  help  to 
remove  waste  because  of  their  high  per  cent  of  water.  Through  the 
organic  salts  in  them  they  improve  the  quality  of  the  blood  and  prevent 
the  acidity  of  the  urine.  They  are  laxative  and  prevent  constipation. 
They  stimulate  the  appetite,  aid  digestion,  and  give  value  to  the  diet. 
They  are  among  the  most  important,  as  well  as  cheapest,  foods,  and 
should  form  a  part  of  every  meal,  especially  of  breakfast.  Most  fruits 
are  also  very  helpful  eaten  late  at  night. 


Baked  Apples. 


(1)  Pare  and  core  the  apples,  fill  the  cores  with  sugar,  dot  some 
butter  over  the  apples,  put  in  a  pan  with  a  little  water,  and  bake  slowly 
but  well. 

(2)  Wash  the  apples  well,  stick  some  holes  in  the  skin,  put  them 
in  a  pan  with  about  an  inch  of  water  and  bake  for  an  hour  or  an  hour 
and  a  half. 


Apple  Tapioca  Pudding. 


Y2  c.  sugar. 

Y2  tsp.  salt. 

1  tsp.  cinnamon. 


6  sour  apples. 

1  qt.  boiling  water. 
1  c.  pearl  tapioca. 


Soak  tapioca  four  hours  in  cold  water.  Drain  and  cook  in  salted 
boiling  water  until  soft  and  transparent.  Pare  and  core  the  apples  and 
arrange  in  a  baking  dish.  Fill  the  cavities  with  sugar  and  spice,  mixed 
together.  Cover  the  apples  with  the  tapioca.  Bake  slowly  until  tender. 
Serve  hot  with  cream  and  sugar. 


34 


Apple  Sauce. 

8  apples.  1  c.  water. 

1  c.  sugar.  y8  tsp.  cinnamon. 

Wipe,  pare  and  core  apples.  Mix  water  and  sugar  and  boil  5 
minutes.  Add  apples  and  cook  until  tender.  Add  cinnamon. 

Apple  Snow. 

3  egg  whites.  %  c.  apple  puip. 

1  tbsp.  lemon  juice.  3  tbsp.  sugar. 

Pare,  quarter  and  core  4  sour  apples,  place  on  a  plate  and  cook  in 
a  steamer,  over  hot  water,  until  soft.  Press  through  a  sieve  and  add 
sugar  and  lemon  juice.  Add  beaten  egg  white.  Pile  in  a  glass  dish 
and  serve  with  red  jelly. 

Note:  For  a  study  of  Fruits  as  Food  see  “Short  Course  Class 
Notes  No.  13,”  Iowa  State  College,  Ames,  Iowa. 

MENUS  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  CHILDREN. 


Breakfast. 

Fruit. 

Cereal. 

Eggs. 

Bread. 

Butter. 

Syrup. 

Milk. 


Dinner. 

Chicken  or  ham 
sandwich. 

Potatoes  (boiled 
or  baked). 

Vegetables  (beans, 
peas  etc.) 

Fruits  or  melon. 

Light  pudding  or 
cake. 


Supper. 

Soup  (light). 

Rice,  with  cream  and 
sugar. 

Bread  and  butter. 
Syrup. 

Stewed  fruit. 

Light  cake  and  milk. 


(Serve,  dinners  on  tables  in  the  grove,  either  together  or  in  parties, 
under  supervision  and  instructions  of  the  teacher). 

Note:  Menus  should  vary  but  be  always  intelligently  planned. 
Hot  soups,  as  a  result  of  the  teaching,  may  occasionally  be  served  for 
dinner.  The  dinner  service  should  occupy  a  definite  period  during  the 
noon  recess,  not  less  than  twenty  minutes,  and  should  be  orderly.  Children 
should  not  be  allowed  to  bolt  their  food.  Cleanliness,  proper  behavior, 
and  good  manners  should  be  insisted  upon,  and  due  credits  should  be 
given  for  the  same. 


35 


MENUS  FOR  THE  FAMILY. 
Tuesday — A  Summer  Day. 


Breakfast. 
Berries  and  cream. 

Dinner. 

Corn  soup. 

Supper. 

Cold  chicken. 

Corn  mush,  with  milk 
Breakfast  bacon 
and  eggs. 

Toast. 

Coffee  and  milk. 

(Milk  for  children.) 

Stewed  chicken. 

Irish  potatoes. 

Corn  bread. 

Snap  Beans. 

Sliced  tomatoes, 
with  dressing. 

Baked  apples,  with 
sugar  and  cream. 

Cold  bread  and  butter 
Milk. 

Peaches  and  cream. 

Wednesday. 

Breakfast. 
Apple  sauce. 

Rice,  with  milk  and 
sugar. 

Fried  chicken. 

Wheat  muffins. 

Coffee  and  milk. 

(Milk  for  children.) 

Dinner. 

Cream  of  tomato  soup. 
Boiled  ham. 

Candied  sweet 
potatoes 

Cabbage. 

Berry  pudding,  with 
sauce. 

Supper. 

Cold  ham  cut  in  thin 
slices. 

Cold  bread  and  butter 
Berries  and  cream. 
Milk. 

A  Winter  Day. 

Breakfast. 
Canned  berries 
Oatmeal  and  cream 
Bacon  strips  and 
eggs. 

Toast. 

Butter. 

Coffee  or  milk. 

Dinner. 
Tomato  soup. 

Chicken  pie-. 

Baked  Irish  potatoes 
Turnip  greens. 

(boiled  with  small 
piece  of  bacon). 
Stewed  tomatoes. 
Canned  peaches  and 
cake. 

Supper. 

Egg  and  cheese  omelet. 
Bread  and  butter. 
Preserves. 

Milk. 

36 


* 


Serving. 

It  is  said  that  the  difference  in  the  food  of  the  rich  and  the  poor 
lies  chiefly  in  the  cooking  and  serving. 

No  meal  is  a  success  unless  the  linen  is  clean,  the  table  neatly  set, 
and  the  food  properly  served.  One  of  the  most  valuable  among  the 
early  housekeeping  lessons  is  the  art  of  table  setting,  and  should  be 
mastered  by  every  child  of  ten.  It  should  be  taught  thoroughly  and 
systematically  through  definite  instructions  and  careful  supervision. 

Table  Setting. 

In  setting  the  table,  first  cover  it  with  a  silence  cloth,  intended  to 
protect  a  polished  table,  to  prevent  noise,  and  to  save  the  table  cloth 
from  wear.  The  table  cloth  should  be  of  good  linen  or  cotton,  plain, 
small  figures  preferred,  large  enough  to  cover  the  table  and  fall  from 
ten  to  twelve  inches  below  its  edge.  Teach  a  child  to  lay  the 
cloth  absolutely  straight,  leaving  the  margin  perfectly  even  on  all 
sides.  The  child  who  learns  to  lay  the  cloth  properly,  forms  a  habit 
that  will  continue  through  life.  One  of  the  chief  elements  of  success 
consists  in  the  care  with  which  the  dishes  are  placed  on  the  table.  The 
same  principles  hold  true,  whether  the  meal  is  a  simple  or  elaborate 
affair.  Give  definite  instructions,  first  with  regard  to  the  placing  of 
the  silver.  Place  each  piece  so  that  the  end  is  one  inch  from  the  edge 
of  the  table,  and  the  pieces  absolutely  parallel  with  one  another.  Place 
the  knives  and  spoons  at  the  right  of  the  plate,  and  the  fork  at  the  left, 
and  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be  used  (an  oyster  fork  should  be 
at  the  right).  The  knife  blade  should  be  turned  towards  the  plate  and 
the  tines  of  the  fork  upwards.  The  glass  should  be  at  the  tip  of  the 
knife,  the  napkin  at  the  left  of  the  fork,  one  inch  from  the  edge  of  the 
table.  The  scrap  plate  and  the  individual  butter  should  be  just  above  the 
napkin.  The  coffee  pot  and  cups  are  placed  at  the  right  of  the  hostess, 
and  the  sugar  and  cream  in  front. 

Flowers  add  much  good  cheer  to  the  table,  and  for  them,  a 
low  dish  is  generally  preferable  to  a  high  vase. 

Serving  Meals. 

Teach  children  to  wait  upon  the  table,  and  do  it  well.  This  lesson 
not  only  makes  them  useful,  but  teaches  them  to  be  more  unselfish  and 
considerate  of  the  comfort  of  others.  In  serving  a  meal  the  chief  thing 
to  keep  in  mind  is  simplicity  and  comfort  rather  than  display  and 
effect.  Assign  reasons  for  rules,  and  fix  a  few  principles  firmly  in  the 
mind.  First,  if  the  child  is  to  place  the  food  in  position  beside  the  guest, 
tell  him  to  pass  to  right  of  the  guest  and  place  the  food  at  the  guests 
right  hand.  If  it  is  food  from  which  the  guest  is  to  help  himself,  tell  the 


37 


child  to  pass  to  the  guest’s  left  hand,  so  that  the  guest  can  use  his  right 
hand.  Caution  the  child  to  lower  the  dish  within  easy  reach  when 
passing  the  food,  and  to  pass  to  the  right  to  remove  dishes  from  the 
table.  If  a  dinner  is  to  be  served  in  courses,  have  nothing 
on  the  table  when  the  guests  are  seated  except  the  center  decorations, 
glasses,  and  bread  and  butter  plates.  There  may  also  be  a  place  plate 
if  a  plate  is  to  be  used.  If  the  first  course  is  to  be  soup,  it  may  be 
placed  on  this  plate,  and  the  plate  may  be  removed  after  the  soup 
course.  Olives,  or  nuts,  or  pickles  may  be  on  the  table  before  serving 
the  first  course  and  remain  until  the  end.  In  general,  remove  everything 
from  the  table  which  pertains  to  the  course  just  served  before  the  next 
course  is  served.  The  successful  dinner  depends  upon  quality 
rather  than  quantity,  and  much  upon  the  good  fellowship  which  attends 
the  meal.  Let  the  meal  be  a  rest  time,  where  cleanliness,  good  taste, 
good  simple  food,  harmony  and  good  manners  prevail. 

Dishwashing. 

Serape  all  the  food  from  the  dishes  and  rinse  them.  Pile  all  of 
dishes  of  one  kind  together.  Soak  in  cold  water  the  dishes  that  have 
been  used  for  milk,  eggs,  or  starchy  foods;  soak  those  used  for  sugary 
substances  in  hot  water.  Wipe  greasy  dishes  with  paper,  and  then  soak 
them  in  hot  water.  Clean  off  the  table  well,  and  do  not  begin  to  wash 
until  everything  is  ready.  Wash  dishes  in  the  following  order:  glass¬ 
ware,  silver-ware,  cups  and  saucers,  plates,  general  dishes.  Wash  in 
hot,  soapy  water :  rinse  in  hot,  clear  water.  Do  not  allow  soap  to  soak 
in  the  dishwater.  Wipe  the  dishes  after  draining,  with  clean,  dry 
towels.  Do  not  pour  boiling  water  over  glassware.  Place  tumblers 
side  down  in  the  dishwater.  Do  not  allow  wood,  bone,  ivory,  rubber,  or 
pearl  handles  to  soak  in  water.  Do  not  continue  to  wash  in  dirty  water. 
Change  it  when  it  becomes  dirty. 

Kettles  and  pans  should  have  water  put  in  them  as  soon  as  empty 
after  cooking.  Do  not  use  a  knife  or  coarse  scouring  soap  to  clean 
enameled  ware. 

Clear  up  as  you  work,  putting  soiled  utensils  of  a  kind  together 
and  putting  them  in  soak  until  ready  to  wash  them.  Put  away  all 
materials  and  utensils  in  their  proper  places.  Leave  everything  you 
have  used  clean,  and  the  room  in  perfect  order. 

Canning  and  Preserving. 

The  “high  cost  of  living,”  so  much  complained  of,  can  be  reduced 
materially  on  the  farm  at  least  by  canning  and  preserving  fruits, 
vegetables,  and  other  foods.  We  probably  waste,  or  allow  to  go  to 


38 


waste,  nearly  enough  to  live  upon.  Thrift  and  econemy  are  matters  of 
education  and  training.  Too  much  attention  can  hardly  be  given  to  the 
conservation  and  preservation  of  food  stuffs.  Give  careful  study  to 
the  Pure  Food  Laws  of  the  State  and  nation.  Copies  of  these  may 
be  had  free  by  writing  the  Dept,  of  Agriculture.  For  further  studies 
get  the  following  free  Bulletins:  From  The  State  Agricultural  College, 
Athens,  Ga. :  The  Canning  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables,  Bulletin  No.  191; 
Girls’  Club  Work  in  Georgia,  Bulletin  No.  6.  From  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. :  Canning  Vegetables  in  the  Home, 
Farmers’  Bulletin  No.  350;  Canned  Fruit,  Preserves  and  Jellies,  Far¬ 
mers’  Bulletin  No.  203;  Canning  Peaches  on  the  Farm,  Farmers’ 
Bulletin  No.  426. 

This  treatment  of  cooking  has  been  very  largely  selected  and  adapted 
from  the  Bulletins  of  The  Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture,  but 
thanks  are  also  due  to  Hampton  Institute,  for  permission  to  use  its 
bulletins  from  which  some  extracts  were  made.  Some  valuable  receipts 
were  copied  from  them.  Extracts  were  also  made  from  “Lessons  in 
Cooking  and  Sewing  for  Virginia  School  Girls.” 


39 


SEWING. 

It  is  an  error  to  suppose  that  all  girls  are  taught  sewing  at  home. 
Some  of  them  are,  but  the  majority  never  learn.  Those  who  can  sew 
well  should  be  employed  in  helping  and  directing  the  younger  girls  in 
the  school  sewing.  If  any  mothers  in  the  neighborhood  are  parties 
larly  skilled  in  sewing  they  should  be  induced  to  come  to  the  school  and 
help  in  teaching  the  children.  Under  present  conditions,  there  should 
not  be  more  than  one  sewing  period  a  week  to  which  the  teacher  gives 
her  time,  but  the  girls  should  be  accustomed  to  sew  as  seat  work  when 
all  the  book  lessons  have  been  learned,  or  when  they  are  too  tired  to 
study.  They  can  frequently  begin  a  piece  of  work  at  school,  and  finish 
it  at  home.  The  teacher  should  enlist  the  co-operation  of  parents  and 
excite  emulation  among  the  children  by  exhibits,  honors,  etc.  It  is  not 
only  unnecessary,  but  inadvisable,  to  have  children  learn  to  sew  on 
samplers  or  to  make  sewing  books.  Let  them  make  something  to  use  or 
wear  from  the  very  beginning.  The  use  of  a  little  good  judgment  in 
the  selection  of  articles  to  make  will  prevent  an  appreciable  waste  of 
material,  but  even  though  waste  of  something  is  necessary,  it  would 
better  be  cloth  than  the  child’s  interest  or  energy.  The  sampler  and 
the  sewing  book  are  frequently  so  exhaustively  and  exhaustingly  done 
that  they  are  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  child’s  sewing. 

Tools  :  Needles,  thread,  scissors,  tape  measure,  thimble  and  emery 
ball. 

General  Suggestions  for  Sewing. 

Sit  in  an  erect  position.  Choose  an  aluminum  or  celluloid  thimble 
that  fits  the  second  finger  of  the  right  hand  and  always  wear  it  while 
sewing.  Never  sew  without  it.  Use  a  short  thread.  Make  the  stitches 
small  and  even.  Keep  a  pair  of  sharp  scissors,  which  are  used  for 
nothing  else.  Choose  thread  and  needle  to  suit  the  kind  of  cloth  used, 
Finish  all  raw  edges  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  garment.  Always  make 
the  wrong  side  look  as  neat  as  possible.  Anything  worth  doing  at  all  is 
worth  doing  well,  so  all  sewing  should  be  done  carefully. 

Basting. 

Basting  is  loose  sewing,  with  loose  stitches  used  as  a  guide  for 
sewing  and  holding  cloth  in  place.  The  more  carefully  the  basting  is 
done  the  less  the  sewing  will  need  be  ripped  and  done  over. 

Even  Basting. 

In  this,  the  stitch  and  the  space  between  are  of  the  same  length.  It 
is  strong,  and  is  used  for  seams  in  a  tight  garment. 


40 


Uneven  Basting. 

In  this  the  stitch  is  long,  and  the  space  between  the  stitches  short. 
This  basting  is  not  strong,  and  is  only  used  to  hold  two  pieces  of  cloth 
in  place  while  being  sewed. 

Back  Stitch. 

Take  one  short  stitch.  Begin  the  second  stitch  in  the  middle  of  the 
first.  Extend  it  to  one-half  the  length  of  the  first  stitch.  Begin  the 
third  stitch  in  the  middle  of  the  second,  and  proceed  as  before.  This 
should  be  used  in  a  seam  that  is  required  to  bear  some  strain. 

Running  Stitch. 

Place  the  two  edges  of  the  cloth  evenly  together.  Baste  with  uneven 
basting  one-fourth  inch  from  the  edge  of  the  cloth.  Take  one  short 
stitch  at  the  right  edge  of  the  cloth  and  just  above  the  basting.  Draw 
the  thread  through  this  three  times  so  as  to  fasten  the  end.  Take  up 
three  even  stitches  on  the  needle  and  pull  the  thread  through  the  cloth, 
but  not  so  tight  that  the  cloth  will  be  gathered.  Continue  the  seam, 
taking  three  stitches  on  the  needle  each  time  and  keeping  the  stitches 
in  a  perfectly  straight  line.  To  fasten  the  end  of  the  thread,  sew  over 
the  last  stitch  three  times  and  cut  the  thread.  Do  not  break  it. 

This  stitch  is  used  in  joining  two  pieces  of  cloth  that  will  not  have 
much  strain,  for  making  tucks,  and  for  gathering  cloth. 

Practice. 

1.  Sew  the  seams  in  a  straight  apron. 

2.  Gather  the  apron  at  the  top. 

3.  Sew  the  seams  in  an  underskirt. 

4.  Tuck  the  underskirt. 

Seams. 

1.  Overhand  Seam. 

Hold  the  edges  firmly  between  the  thumb  and  finger  of  the  left 
hand.  Take  up  two  threads  of  the  selvage  with  the  needle,  and  pull 
the  needle  straight  toward  you,  drawing  the  thread  firmly.  Take  small 
stitches  and  keep  them  even.  This  is  used  for  selvage  edges. 

2.  French  Seam. 

Turn  the  seam  to  the  right  side  of  the  garment.  Trim  the  frayed 
edges.  Sew  the  seam  one-fourth  of  an  inch  from  the  edge.  Turn  the 
seam  and  press  the  edges  firmly  on  the  wrong  side.  Baste  the  cloth 
evenly  on  the  wrong  side,  and  just  below  the  edges  of  the  seam.  Turn 
the  cloth  on  the  right  side  and  press  the  seam  firmly  with  a  thumb  and 


41 


finger.  Be  careful  that  the  frayed  edges  of  the  seam  do  not  show 
on  the  right  side.  This  is  the  best  seam  to  use  for  shirt  waists,  under¬ 
wear,  or  straight  seams  in  cotton  dresses. 

3.  Felled  Seam. 

Place  the  edges  of  the  cloth  together  evenly.  Begin  at  the  right  and 
make  the  seam  one-third  of  an  inch  wide.  When  you  have  finished 
sewing  the  seam,  trim  the  under  edge  until  it  is  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
wide.  Fold  the  upper  edge  until  it  is  just  wide  enough  to  cover  the 
under  edge.  Press  the  upper  edge  down  firmly  and  hem  to  the  garment 
with  small  even  stitches. 

Practice. 


1.  Make  a  pillow  case. 

2.  Use  the  French  seam  on  underwear. 

3.  Use  it  on  a  cotton  dress. 

4.  Make  a  cooking  apron. 

5.  Use  the  felled  seam  on  a  corset  cover. 

Hemming. 

To  Fold :  Turn  the  raw  edge  of  the  cloth  over  just  one-fourth  of 
an  inch.  To  do  this,  begin  at  the  right  edge,  taking  the  folded  edge 
between  the  thumb  and  finger  of  the  right  hand,  and  laying  the  fold  with 
the  left  hand.  Lay  the  folded  edge  in  plaits,  and  pinch  between  the 
thumb  of  the  right  hand  and  first  finger  of  the  left  hand.  Hold  the 
folded  plaits  between  the  thumb  and  finger  of  the  right  hand,  and 
pinch  them  hard,  to  hold  the  folded  edge  in  place. 

To  Make  the  Second  Fold :  To  make  a  one  inch  hem,  cut  a  strip 
of  stiff  paper  one  inch  wide  and  three  inches  long.  Measure  down 
from  the  folded  edge  the  width  of  this  paper.  Make  a  turn  in  the 
cloth,  and  make  a  crease  in  the  new  folded  edge.  Continue  to  make 
this  fold,  and  hold  it  in  place  with  the  thumb  and  finger  as  you  did  for 
the  first  fold.  Be  sure  to  use  the  paper  measure  as  a  guide.  Baste 
the  edge  in  place  with  uneven  basting. 

To  Sew  the  Hem :  Hold  the  hem  over  the  first  finger  of  the  left 
hand.  Hold  it  in  place  with  the  thumb  and  second  finger.  Push  the 
needle  through  one  thread  of  the  under  part  of  the  hem,  and  then  in  a 
slanting  position  through  the  edge  of  the  upper  part  of  the  hem  and 
pull  the  thread  through.  Keep  all  of  the  stitches  slanting,  and  keep 
them  parallel  with  each  other.  Be  sure  not  to  pull  the  thread  tight 
enough  to  gather  the  cloth. 


42 


French  Hem. 

To  Fold :  Fold  the  cloth  to  the  wrong  side,  make  a  fold  one-fourth 
of  an  inch  wide,  and  press  it  firmly  until  the  edge  is  well  creased. 

To  Make  the  Second  Fold :  Measure  down  from  the  folded  edge 
three-fourths  of  an  inch,  turn  the  hem  to  the  wrong  side  of  the  cloth 
and  make  a  crease  at  the  one-fourth  inch  mark. 

To  Make  the  Third  Fold :  Fold  the  entire  hem  back  toward  the 
right  side  of  the  cloth  and  crease  at  the  lower  fold. 

To  Sew  the  Rem :  Take  up  one  thread  of  each  folded  edge  and  pull 
the  needle  straight  toward  the  chest.  Keep  the  stitches  parallel  and 
do  not  draw  them  firmly  enough  to  gather  the  cloth.  If  the  work  is 
well  done  the  stitches  will  be  almost  invisible.  This  hem  is  good  to  use 
on  table  linen. 

Rolled  Hem. 

To  Fold:  Hold  the  raw  edge  of  the  cloth  firmly  between  the  thumb 
and  finger  of  the  left  hand  and  by  moving  the  thumb  make  a  small  roll 
along  the  edge  of  the  cloth.  After  one  inch  has  been  rolled  begin  to 
sew,  keeping  the  roll  small  and  even. 

To  Sew  the  Rem.  Use  a  No.  9  needle  and  a  No.  90  thread.  Insert 
the  needle  into  the  under  side  of  the  roll,  taking  up  only  one  thread 
and  push  it  through  the  upper  side,  taking  again  only  one  thread. 
Continue  stitch  by  stitch  making  the  stitches  even  and  taking  up  as 
little  cloth  as  possible  on  each  stitch.  The  roll  should  be  small,  firm 
and  round. 

Practice. 

1.  Hem  an  underskirt,  a  cooking  apron,  and  a  gingham  dress,  with 
a  plain  hem. 

2.  Hem  table  napkins  with  the  French  hem. 

3.  Hem  a  muslin  ruffle  with  a  rolled  hem. 

Ornamental  Stitches. 

Outline  Stitch:  Hold  the  thread  over  the  left  forefinger  and  work 
from  you.  Keep  the  thread  downwards  under  the  thumo,  and  to  the 
right  of  the  needle.  Bring  the  needle  through  to  the  right  side  of  the 
material  at  the  lower  end  of  a  traced  line.  Take  a  long  stitch  ahead  on 
the  traced  line  and  a  short  stitch  back  through  the  material.  Continue 
in  this  way,  being  careful  not  to  draw  the  stitches  tighter  than  the 
cloth. 


43 


Making  the  Outline  Stitch.  Making  the  Chain  Stitch. 

This  stitch  is  used  for  outlining  solid  embroidery  and  for  making 
simple  designs. 

Chain  Stitch. 

Hold  the  material  across  the  forefinger  of  the  left  hand.  Work 
towards  you  with  the  needle  pointing  toward  the  chest.  Draw  the 
needle  through  to  the  right  side  of  the  material,  holding  the  thread 
under  the  left  thumb.  Reinsert  the  needle  in  the  same  place  from 
which  it  came  out.  Bring  it  through  one-eighth  of  an  inch  below  and 
over  the  thread  to  form  a  loop.  Continue  in  this  manner,  taking  one 
stitch  below  the  other,  keeping  the  stitches  vertical  and  regular.  This 
is  used  on  towels,  face  cloths,  bags,  underclothing,  and  for  marking  linen. 

Blanket  Stitch. 

Begin  at  the  left  hand  corner,  and  work  from  left  to  right,  holding 
the  edge  of  the  material  toward  you.  Insert  the  needle  one-eighth  to 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  from  each  edge,  and  take  two  or  three  small  run^ 
ning  stitches  to  the  edge.  Fasten  the  stitch  by  making  a  backward 
stitch  over  the  last  running  stitch.  Hold  the  thread  under  the  thumb 
of  the  left  hand  and  insert  the  needle  again  in  the  same  place.  Draw  it 
through  and  make  a  loop  over  the  thread  as  in  the  figure. 


44 


Making  the  Blanket  Stitch.  A  Variation  in  Blanket  Stitch. 

Take  the  next  stitch  by  holding-  the  thread  down  with  the  thumb. 
Insert  the  needle  at  the  same  height  as  the  last  stitch  and  as  far  to  the 
left  as  desired.  Draw  the  needle  through  the  cloth  and  over  the  thread 
to  make  the  loop.  Continue  the  stitches  at  the  same  height  and  same 
distance  apart.  To  turn  the  corner  neatly,  take  three  stitches  in  the 
same  hole.  To  fasten  the  thread,  take  two  or  three  running  stitches 
under  the  last  upright  stitch  with  one  back  stitch  and  cut  it  off.  To 
begin  with  a  new  thread  put  the  needle  under  the  last  stitch  as  in 
beginning  the  work,  bring  the  new  thread  through  the  loop,  and  pro¬ 
ceed  as  before.  This  is  used  to  finish  and  decorate  the  raw  edges  of 
flannel  or  woolen  material  which  is  too  thick  to  hem  or  fold  well. 

French  Knots. 

Hold  the  material  over  the  left  forefinger,  and  bring  the  needle 
up  from  the  wrong  side  at  the  place  desired  for  the  knot.  Take  a  small 
back  stitch,  leaving  the  needle  half  way  through  the  material.  Take  the 
thread  where  it  comes  through  the  material,  and  wind  it  three  or  more 
times  around  the  needle.  Hold  this  coil  of  thread  on  the  needle  under 
the  left  thumb  and  draw  the  needle  slowly  through  the  coil.  Then 
insert  the  needle  where  it  was  inserted  for  the  back  stitch.  Bring  the 
needle  through  the  material  where  the  next  stitch  is  to  be,  and  continue 
as  before.  This  is  under  on  underclothing,  wash  waists,  fancy  neckwear, 
linen  table  pieces,  and  sofa  pillows.  A  light  blue  or  pink  linen  dress 
may  be  decorated  with  a  row  of  white  linen  French  knots. 


45 

Feather  Stitching. 


This  is  used  on  such  articles  as  underclothing,  jabots,  collars,  aprons, 
fancy  bags,  dust  cloths,  traveling  cases,  bureau  scarfs,  etc. 

Button-Holes. 

To  Cut  the  Button-Hole :  If  the  button  is  flat,  the  button-hole 
should  be  as  long  as  the  button  is  wide.  Measure  the  width  of  the 
button  on  a  slip  of  paper.  Cut  the  paper  at  your  measure.  Place  this 
paper  on  a  double  fold  of  cloth,  parallel  with  the  upper  edge,  and  one- 
fourth  inch  from  the  side  of  the  cloth.  Place  a  pin  at  each  end  of 
upper  edge  of  the  paper.  Fold  the  cloth  from  one  pin  to  the  other. 
Place  the  sharp  point  of  the  scissors  in  the  pin  hole  which  is  farthest 
to  the  right.  Cut  slowly  along  the  fold  till  you  reach  the  pin  which  is 
nearest  the  edge  of  the  cloth 

To  Begin  the  Button-Hole:  The  first  step  is  to  place  a  bar  around 
the  edge  of  the  button-hole  in  order  to  strengthen  the  button-hole  and 
to  act  as  a  guide  when  you  are  trying  to  get  your  stitches  even. 
Place  the  button-hole  over  the  first  finger  of  your  left  hand,  holding  it 
horizontally  in  place  with  the  thumb  and  second  finger.  To  begin  the 
bar,  insert  the  needle  through  the  right  end  of  the  button-hole  being 
careful  to  hold  the  needle  at  right  angles  with  the  hole.  This  stitch 
should  be  one-eighth  of  an  inch  above  or  below  the  button-hole.  Turn 
the  button-hole  so  that  the  left  end  is  held  over  the  first  finger  of  the 
left  hand.  Insert  the  needle  through  the  left  end,  keeping  the  stitch 
just  even  with  the  stitch  at  the  right  end.  Pull  the  thread  until  it  is 
smooth  but  leave  two  inches  of  it  hanging  loose  from  the  right  end  of 
the  button-hole.  Turn  the  button-hole  again,  and  hold  it  so  that  its  right 


46 


end  is  held  over  the  first  finger  of  the  left  hand.  Take  this  stitch 
through  exactly  the  same  holes  as  you  did  the  first  stitch. 

To  Work  the  Button^Hole:  Place  the  button-hole  so  that  the  right 
end  is  held  over  the  first  finger  of  the  left  hand,  holding  it  in  place 
with  the  thumb  and  second  finger.  Place  the  needle  close  to  the  righl* 
edge  of  the  button-hole,  keeping  it  at  right  angles  with  the  hole.  Take 
one  stitch  just  long  enotigh  to  cover  the  bar.  Take  hold  of  the  thread 
from  the  eye  of  the  needle,  and  pass  that  around  the  point  of  the 
needle  from  the  right.  Pull  the  thread  into  place  so  that  it  will  be  just 
as  tight  as  the  cloth,  but  no  tighter.  Take  the  second  stitch  exactly 
the  same  distance  from  the  edge  as  the  first  and  as  close  to  the  first 
as  you  can  get  it.  Continue  until  the  lower  edge  is  covered. 

To  Turn  the  Curve :  This  will  decide  whether  the  button-hole  is 
good  or  poor.  The  third  stitch  must  be  exactly  parallel  with  the  edge 
of  the  button-hole  and  half  way  between  the  upper  and  lower  edge. 
The  first  and  second  stitches  divide  the  space  between  the  third  and 
lower  edge  of  the  button-hole  into  exactly  three  equal  parts.  The 
fourth  and  fifth  stitches  correspond  exactly  with  the  second  and  first. 

To  Make  the  Upper  Edge :  Turn  the  button-hole  so  that  the  left 
end  is  over  the  first  finger  of  your  left  hand,  thus  placing  the  unworked 
edge  at  the  bottom.  Work  this  edge  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  the 
lower  edge.  Make  the  turn  as  before. 

To  Fasten  the  Thread :  Turn  the  button-hole  to  the  wrong  side. 
Pull  the  needle  and  thread  through  to  the  wrong  side.  Take  four  short 
firm  stitches  through  the  lower  fold  of  the  cloth.  Place  the  thread 
around  the  needle  once.  Pull  the  needle  up  through  that  loop  and  cut 
the  thread.  Cut  also  the  loose  end  of  thread  that  was  left  on  the  upper 
edge. 

To  Sew  on  the  Button. 

Place  the  button  one-half  inch  from  the  edge  of  the  band.  The 
button  will  be  less  apt  to  pull  oft  and  pull  a  part  of  the  cloth  with  it 
if  it  is  fastened  to  the  cloth  loosely.  To  do  that  place  two  pins  across 
the  bottom  as  shown  in  the  picture. 


Select  a  needle  that  is  right  for  No.  40  thread.  Double  the  thread 
and  place  a  firm  knot  at  the  end.  Pass  the  needle  through  the  button 


47 


at  1.  Pull  the  thread  up  through  3  and  down  through  4.  Continue  in 
this  regular  order  until  the  holes  are  full  of  thread.  Take  four  firm 
stitches  through  the  bunch  of  threads  at  the  under  side  of  the  cloth 
and  pull  the  needle  firmly  through  the  thread.  Cut  the  thread  close  to 
the  cloth. 

Care  of  Clothing. 

1.  Never  wear  a  garment  that  lacks  a  button.  2.  Never  wear  a 
garment  that  is  ripped.  The  ripped  place  will  ravel  and  be  hard  to 
mend  if  it  is  not  sewed  at  once.  3.  Never  wear  a  garment  with  hooks  and 
eyes  lacking.  4.  Never  wear  a  garment  which  is  torn.  Mend  it  as 
as  soon  as  you  can  find  a  needle  and  thread.  The  torn  edges  will  soon 
ravel,  be  unsightly  and  hard  to  mend.  5.  Never  allow  stains  to  remain 
on  garments  without  trying  to  remove  them. 


48 


Darning. 

Trim  the  frayed  out  edges.  Run  your  thread  across  the  opening  to 
take  the  place  of  the  warp.  When  all  the  threads  have  been  run  take 
three  small  stitches  in  the  edge  of  the  cloth,  placing  the  hole  over  some 
hard  body  such  as  a  darning  ball,  and  hold  it  so  that  the  hole  will 
not  be  stretched  out  of  shape.  Take  three  small  stitches  opposite  the 
first  three,  and  draw  the  third  as  tight  as  the  first  warp  thread  was 
drawn.  Place  thread  after  thread  in  this  way,  until  the  hole  is  covered 
with  warp  thread  being  careful  to  keep  the  threads  close  to  each  other 
and  to  take  the  beginning  stitches  at  equal  distances  from  the  edge. 
To  fill  in  the  woof  threads,  take  three  small  stitches  at  the  side  of  the 
hole  nearest  the  last  warp  thread.  Slip  the  needle  under  the  first  warp 
thread,  over  the  second,  under  the  third,  over  the  fourth,  working  all 
the  way  across  the  hole  in  this  way.  Take  three  small  stitches  in  the 
opposite  side.  Turn  the  work  and  go  back  in  the  same  way.  Be  careful 
to  keep  the  warp  threads  close  together  so  that  the  darning  will  bo 
firm  and  solid. 


49 


Overhand  Patching. 

If  the  garment  has  a  ragged  tear  like  the  one  in  the  picture,  cut  the 


cloth  until  you  have  a  perfectly  square  hole,  as  shown  in  the  next  picture. 


Make  a  diagonal  cut  in  each  corner  one-half  inch  in  length  as  in  the 
picture.  Turn  each  edge  of  the  square  hole  to  the  wrong  side,  making 
the  width  of  the  hole  equal  to  the  length  of  the  diagonal  cuts  in  the 
corner.  Cut  a  square  patch  that  is  one  inch  larger  than  the  hole  after 


50 


the  fold  has  been  made  on  each  edge.  Make  a  one-half  inch  fold  on 
each  edge  of  the  patch.  Turn  the  garment  to  the  wrong  side,  fit  the 
upper  left  corner  of  the  patch  into  the  upper  left  comer  of  the  hole, 
holding  that  corner  of  the  patch  firmly  in  place  with  the  thumb  and 
finger  of  the  left  hand.  Be  careful  to  make  the  upper  right  corner 
of  the  patch  to  exactly  fit  the  upper  right  corner  of  the  square  hole. 
Work  with  overhand  stitch  until  the  patch  is  sewed  in  place.  Overcast 
all  of  the  raw  edges. 


WHEN  THE  TEAR  IS  PROPERLY  PATCHED. 


This  work  is  mainly  composed  of  selections  from  the  various  excel¬ 
lent  bulletins  of  the  Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture.  Thanks  are 
also  due  this  institution  for  the  loan  of  the  cuts  from  which  the  illus¬ 
trations  are  made.  For  some  of  the  opinions  expressed,  however,  the 
Iowa  State  College  is  in  no  way  responsible. 


51 


MANUAL  TRAINING. 

In  the  following  outline  for  manual  training,  the  attempt  has  been 
made  to  suggest  only  such  work  as  can  be  done  in  a  school  of  from  one 
to  three  teachers  with  very  small  equipment.  Much  of  it  has  been 
actually  done  in  a  school  of  one  teacher  and  seven  grades,  with  impro¬ 
vised  material  and  borrowed  tools. 

The  dominant  purpose  in  all  the  work  is  to  make  the  school  react 
upon  the  home,  and  to  vitalize  the  usual  school  studies  by  connecting 
them  with  manual  activities.  Much  of  this  work  can  be  done  by  the 
children  as  seat  work  between  the  recitations  and  late  in  the  afternoons 
when  they  are  too  tired  for  book  work.  Some  of  it  can  be  begun  in  the 
school  and  finished  at  home. 

Sand  Work. 

Have  three  or  four  wagon  loads  of  clean  sand  put  into  the  school 
yard.  Tell  the  little  children  stories  and  have  them  illustrate  the  stories 
in  sand  forms.  Have  older  children  make  forms  of  land  and  water. 
Have  the  children  bring  box  tops,  fill  them  with  sand,  and  set  up 
scenes,  such  as  Indian,  Esquimaux,  and  Japanese  villages.  Have  sand 
table  for  geography  and  history. 

Weaving. 

Have  older  children  make  wooden  looms  as  follows :  Get  40  inches 
of  lumber  one  inch  wide  and  one-half  inch  thick,  cut  this  into  two 
twelve-inch  and  two  eight-inch  strips,  nail  the  eight-inch  over  the 
twelve-inch  and  two  eight-inch  strips.  Nail  the  eight-inch  over  the 
twelve-inch  strips. 


Loom. 


Drive  headless  tacks  one  eighth  of  an  inch  apart  across  the  eight-inch 
strips,  taking  care  that  there  are  pairs  of  tacks  opposite  each  other.  (Use 
ruler).  Get  heavy  cord  and  tie  from  tack  to  opposite  tack.  This  gives 
the  warp  for  the  rug.  For  a  shuttle,  take  a  piece  of  wood  10  inches 


52 


long,  one  inch  wide,  and  as  thin  as  possible,  bore  a  hole  in  one  end 
large  enough  to  admit  very  coarse  wool,  jute,  or  strips  of  cloth.  When 
threaded,  pass  the  other  end  under  one  thread  of  the  warp  and  over 
another,  entirely  across  the  loom.  Draw  the  filling  through  and  beat  it 
in  place  with  a  piece  of  wood,  similar  to  the  shuttle,  which  has  been 
previously  passed  in  as  the  shuttle  was,  at  the  lower  end  of  the  loom. 
Very  crude  looms  for  the  little  children  may  be  made  of  chalk  boxes, 
using  the  dovetailing  instead  of  tacks. 


Let  the  children  weave  rugs  for  doll-houses  and  iron-holders,  pan¬ 
holders,  mats,  etc.,  for  their  homes.  In  some  schools,  looms  six  feet  by 
three  feet  have  been  used  to  weave  actual  rugs  for  the  school  and 
home.  Rags  can  be  stripped  up,  sewed  together  and  dyed  for  the 
filling.  Hanks  of  jute  can  be  bought  from  Milton  Bradley  Company, 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  at  forty  cents  per  pound,  one  pound  weaving  at  least 
twenty  small  rugs. 


53 


The  loom  below  is  somewhat  more  elaborate  than  the  simple  one  de¬ 
scribed,  but  the  children  can  easily  make  it. 


A  Card-board  Loom  and  Holder.  A  Carpet-yarn  Bug. 


54 


Paper  and  Cardboard  Work. 

Give  the  children  colored  paper  and  without  allowing  them  to  draw 
outlines,  have  them  tear  out  free-hand  figures,  such  as  trees,  houses, 
human  forms,  etc.  Have  them  combine  these  in  a  picture  and  paste 
on  a  neutral  tinted  back-ground  of  card-board. 


Paper  Cutting. 

Have  each  child  bring  a  pair  of  scissors  to  school,  and  cut  paper 
free-hand,  for  a  similar  purpose.  Get  from  old  magazines,  pages  with 
pictures,  and  have  the  younger  children  cut  these  out  and  carefully 
combine  them  in  new  pictures.  Let  them  cut  out  and  dress  paper  dolls. 


i 


55 


Paper  Folding. 

Have  children  fold  drinking  cups,  candy  boxes,  cornucopias,  flower 
baskets,  lamp  lighters,  etc. 

Cardboard  Construction. 

Have  older  children  to  make  scrap-baskets,  lamp-shades,  work- 
baskets,  etc.  Have  younger  children  make  card-board  furniture. 

Toy  Lantern. 

Material — Heavy  paper. 

Cut  a  6-inch  square.  Paste  bands  of  black  paper  %  of  an  inch 
wide  across  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  square.  Fold  the  top  to  meet 
the  bottom  with  the  bands  of  black  outside.  Crease.  Beginning  on  the 
crease  make  cuts  about  of  an  inch  apart  from  the  crease  to  the  black 
paper.  Paste  the  ends  of  the  bands  of  black  together  to  form  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  lantern.  Cut  a  strip  of  black  6  x  %  inches  for  the 
handle  and  paste  it  across  the  top  of  the  lantern. 


Doll’s  Bureau. 


Take  a  square  of  heavy  paper  8x8  inches.  Fold  this  into  sixteen 
squares,  then  cut  and  paste  into  a  square  box  4x4  inches  and  2  inches 
high.  For  the  drawers  take  two  pieces  of  paper  6x8  inches  and 
fold  each  into  twelve  squares.  Cut  and  paste  each  into  an  oblong  box 
2x2x4  inches.  If  you  choose,  paste  a  handle  upon  each  drawer.  Put 
these  into  the  square  box,  and  for  the  back  cut  an  oblong  4x7  inches. 
Paste  this  upon  the  back  and  upon  the  3  inches  that  come  above  the 
bureau.  Cut  slits  and  bend  the  top  forward  to  represent  the  looking- 
glass,  or  paste  silver  paper  upon  the  back,  in  the  form  you  wish  the 
glass. 


56 


Doll’s  Chair. 


Material — Heavy  folding  paper. 

Cut  a  6-inch  square.  Fold  this  into  nine  2-inch  squares.  Cut  across 
the  top  of  the  lower  right  square,  also  the  lower  left  square.  Find  the 
square  in  the  middle  of  the  top  row  and  cut  across  both  the  right  and 
the  left  .sides.  Fold  this  square  uji  towards  you  for  the  back  of  the 
chair.  Fold  the  remaining  squares  into  the  shape  of  a  cube  and  paste 
them  together.  Now  cut  an  oblong  2x4  inches  and  paste  on  the  back 
of  the  chair,  to  strengthen  it.  At  the  top  of  the  back  of  the  chair  cut 
out  a  small  oblong,  as  an  ornament. 

At  the  bottom,  beginning  about  %  of  an  inch  from  each  corner, 
cut  an  oblong  about  1  inch  high,  to  form  the  legs  of  the  chair. 

Doll’s  Table. 

Take  an  8-inch  square  of  heavy  paper.  Fold  it  into  sixteen  2-inch 
squares.  Cut  across  the  top  of  the  lower  right  square,  also  the  lower 
left  square.  Cut  across  the  bottom  of  the  upper  right  square,  also  the 
upper  left  square.  Fold  into  box  form  and  paste.  Use  the  bottom  of 
the  box  for  the  top  of  the  table  and  at  the  bottom  of  each  side,  beginning 
y2.  of  an  inch  from  the  corner,  cut  an  oblong  about  3  inches  by  1  inch. 
This  will  make  the  opening  between  the  legs  of  the  table. 


57 


DRAWING. 

I  Mechanical  Drawing. 

(1)  Plans  for  farm-house,  gardens  and  outhouses.  A  suggestive 
plan  is  given  below,  but  the  children  will  make  far  simpler  ones.  They 
must  be  allowed  as  much  spontaneity  as  possible.  Arouse  some  compe¬ 
tition  and  attach  honor  to  best  plan.  As  a  preliminary  to  this  exercise, 
discuss  each  plan  with  the  children  with  regard  to  health,  convenience, 
and  beauty. 

Plan"  tor  Farmhouse  and  Grounds. 


PxjLbl.  ^  M.g  Array 


(2)  Plans  for  a  vegetable  garden.  For  illustration,  see  “Children’s 
Home  Gardens.” 


58 


(3)  Floor  plans  for  farm  homes. 


Floor  Plan  for  Farmhouse. 


Discuss  with  the  children  the  exposure  to  light  and  air;  the  arrange¬ 
ment  of  rooms  with  reference  to  health,  comfort,  convenience  and 
beauty.  Have  them  make  plans  for  houses  of  from  two  to  seven  rooms. 
Arouse  competition,  and  attach  honor  as  before. 


(4)  Plans  for  flower  gardens. 


59 


Plan  for  a  Five  Acre  School  Ground. 


(51)  Plans  for  the  arrangement  of  furniture  in  bed  room,  dining 
room,  and  kitchen. 

Discuss  with  children  suitable  furniture  and  the  arrangement  of  it 
with  reference  to  convenience,  comfort,  and  beauty.  In  planning  the 
dining  room  and  kitchen  discuss  arrangements  for  saving  steps  and 
labor.  Have  children  plan  compact  kitchen  with  all  conveniences  pos¬ 
sible  to  a  farm  home.  Attach  especial  honor  to  best  plans. 

(6)  Plans  for  school  and  surroundings  similar  to  those  for  homes. 

(7)  Floor  plans  for  school  similar  to  floor  plans  for  a  home. 

(8)  Designs  for  rustic  fences,  trellises  for  vines,  summer  houses, 
arbors,  etc. 


(9)  Have  working1  drawings  made  for  all  wood  work. 

II  Free  Hand  Drawing,  Color  Work,  and  Design. 

1.  Drawing-  with  crayola,  crayograph,  pastello,  charcoal,  or  pencil, 
of  common  objects,  such  as  flowers,  fruits,  simple  landscapes,  boxes, 
vases,  etc. 


Cotton  Boll. 


61 


It  is  not  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  show  the  pupil  exactly  how  to 
do  this.  No  drawing  should  be  made  on  the  board  for  the  children  to 
imitate,  nor  should  flat  pictures  be  given  them  to  copy.  The  teacher 
should  place  in  view  the  object,  and  tell  them  to  draw  it,  giving  sug¬ 
gestions  from  time  to  time  as  to  methods. 

2.  Illustrations  of  stories  and  scenes  described  in  literature,  on  the 
board,  or  on  paper,  with  crayola,  common  chalk  or  pencil. 

3.  Drawing  of  farm  implements  and  household  conveniences. 

4.  Designs  for  rugs,  Avail  paper,  fabrics,  book  covers,  calendars, 
Thanksgiving,  Christmas,  and  Easter  cards,  valentines,  posters,  adver¬ 
tisements,  color  schemes  for  the  interior  of  rooms,  and  painting  and 
staining  on  wood. 

October  Calendar. 


62 


EASTER  CARD 


HALLOWWE’EN  POST  CARD. 


CHRISTMAS  PICTURE. 


63 


In  this  work,  the  older  children  can  nse  water  colors  which  may  be 
bought  for  five  cents  per  box,  or  one  of  the  many  kinds  of  colored 
crayons  to  be  had  at  five  cents  per  package. 

The  color  scheme  for  the  walls  of  a  room  may  be  a  simple  rectangle 
with  lines  bounding  the  picture  moulding  and  wainscoating.  For 
painting  or  staining  on  dressed  wood,  the  children  may  be  asked  to 
bring  scraps  of  dressed  lumber  from  their  homes,  and  these  may  be 
sawed  into  such  shapes  as  desired.  The  painting  meant  is  simply  house 
or  implement  painting.  For  the  staining,  ask  the  children  to  bring 
common  laths,  shingles  or  other  undressed  lumber  and  teach  them  to  treat 
with  creosote  stains. 

Have  the  children  make  a  collection  of  all  the  hard  woods  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  polish  and  stain  on  cross  sections  so  as  to  bring  out 
the  grain. 

III  Book  Making. 

1.  Select  sheets  of  paper,  the  proper  size  and  number,  measure 
the  length  and  breadth  of  these,  draw  on  gray  or  brown  card-board 
a  rectangle  one-fourth  inch  wider,  and  one-half  inch  longer  than  one 
of  these  sheets.  Cut  two  pieces  of  card-board  of  this  shape  and  size, 
lay  the  sheets  of  paper  between  these  backs  so  that  the  backs  will 
project  one-fourth  inch  beyond  the  paper  at  top  and  bottom  and  at 
one  side,  coinciding  with  the  sheets  on  the  other  side.  Then  on  this 
side,  make  three  perforations  with  a  card  punch  through  card  board 
and  sheets.  Through  these  perforations,  tie  heavy  cord  with  ornamental 
knots.  Put  suitable  cover  design. 

2.  Select  leaves  and  cut  backs  as  before.  Instead  of  perforations, 
stitch  leaves  and  backs  together,  and  paste  cloth  over  the  stitching, 
Have  children  to  make  books  for  geography,  history,  literature,  etc., 
after  one  of  these  methods. 

3.  Book  making.  The  mending  of  old  books,  the  backs  of  which 
have  worn  out,  should  receive  careful  attention. 

IV  Mat  Making. 

1.  Have  the  children  plait  ordinary  corn  shucks  in  long  heavy 
plats,  and  then  coiling  up  these  plaits  sew  them  together  with  heavy 
cord  or  fasten  them  together  with  narrow  white  oak  splits.  This  makes 
substantial  door  mats  for  school  or  home. 

2.  Take  long  strips  of  poplar  bark  and  soak  them  in  water  until 
the  stiff  outside  layer  can  be  pealed  off,  plat  the  inside  bark  and  bind 
together  as  in  case  of  the  shuck  mat. 


> 


G4 


BASKETRY. 

Make  baskets  for  use  in  school  and  home  of  white  oak  splits,  willow 
twigs,  poplar  bark,  birch  bark,  pine  needles,  wire-grass,  straw,  or  any 
other  material  that  the  children  can  gather  in  the  neighborhood. 

Willow  Mats  in  Process  of  Making. 


G5 


Willow  Baskets. 


VII  Wood  Work. 


In  the  work  suggested  below  an  elaborate  equipment  of  tools  is  not 
necessary.  Every  piece  of  it  has  been  done  already  in  Georgia  country 
schools  without  any  formal  equipment.  The  simpler  pieces  have  been 
done  with  a  pocket  knife  and  a  piece  of  glass.  When  other  tools  ar'' 
used  the  children  borrow  them  from  their  homes. 

Some  of  the  teachers  have  enlisted  the  interest  of  fathers  and 
induced  them  to  come  to  the  school  and  help  in  the  work. 

Suggestive  List  of  Articles  to  be  Made. 

Dibbles,  hammer  and  axe  handles,  butter  paddles,  churn  dashers  and 
lids,  bread  boards,  sand  tables,  flower  boxes,  water  stands,  rustic  fences* 
trellises  for  vines,  bird  boxes,  doorsteps,  book  shelves,  porch  chairs, 
swings,  wheelbarrows,  tables,  bookcases,  hat  and  cloak  racks,  step 
ladders,  merry  go-rounds,  poultry  coops,  houses,  and  brooders,  bread 
trays,  salt  boxes,  drinking  troughs  for  farm  animals,  rolling  pins, 
seeding  testing  boxes,  etc.  They  may  build  a  wood  house,  shelters  for 
the  sand  pile,  and  school  lunch  table;  put  glass  in  windows,  and  repair 
the  roof,  steps,  floors,  etc. 

Excellent  woodwork,  consisting  of  library  table,  magazine  rack, 
picture  frame,  flower  box,  small  table,  sled,  log  cabin,  bookshelves, 
washboard,  and  sets  of  doll  furniture,  was  done  by  the  pupils  of  a 
Hancock  County  school  of  seven  grades  and  one  teacher,  Miss  Lola 
Allen.  The  tools  with  which  it  was  done,  were  all  borrowed  from  the 
parents.  In  addition  to  this,  the  children  built  a  cloak  room,  made  steps 
for  the  house,  enclosed  and  cultivated  a  flower  garden,  and  built  and 
furnished  a  playhouse.  That  they  did  not  neglect  the  usual  work  is 
abundantly  proved  by  their  fine  written  work  in  Grammar,  Geography, 


66 


Arithmetic,  Spelling,  Composition  etc.  Miss  Allen. had  had  no  previous 
training  in  woodwork. 

Thanks  are  due  The  School  Arts  Publishing  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.,  for 
many  of  the  illustrations  used  in  this  work.  Extracts  were  also  made 
from  Holton  P.  Rollins’  “Industrial  Work  for  Public  Schools.” 


Woodwork  Done  by  School  Children. 


House  Built  by  School  Children. 


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